IRLF 


I 


B    3   fl42    251 


JNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 
BULLETIN  No.  863 

Contribution  from  the  States  Relations  Service 
A.  C.  TRUE,  Director 


shington,  D.  C. 


PROFESSIONAL  PAPER 


September  30,  1920 


FORESTRY   LESSONS   ON 
HOME  WOODLANDS 

By 

WILBUR  R.  MATTOON 

Extension  Specialist  in  Forestry,  Forest  Service 
and 

ALVIN  DILLE 

Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education,  States  Relations  Service 


CONTENTS 


Page 

troduction    ......    v     ....  1 

>urces  of  Information 2 

ie  Survey       •  2 

lustrative  Material 3 

he  Home  Project 3 

ssson  1.  Forest  Trees  and  Forest  Types  4 
II.  Location  and  Extent  of  Wood- 
lands      9 

HI.  Economic  Value  of  the  Forest  10 
IV.  Products      From     the     Home 

Forest 13 


Lesson  V.  Using  Farm  Timber     ....  15 
VI.  Measuring      and      Estimating 

Timber '   .     .  17 

VII.  Marketing  Farm  Timber      .     .  18 

VIII.  Protecting  the  Woods       ...  20 
IX.  Improving  the  Home  Forest  by 

Cutting 23 

X.  Growth  of  Trees  and  Forests   .  25 
XI.  Forest  Reproduction    ...     .26 
XII.  Woodlands  and  Farm  Manage- 
ment        32 

Supplement 34 


WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1920 


Bui.  863,  U.  S,  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Frontispiece. 


179374°— 20— Bull.  8G3 1 


^ 


1 


i 


in  Librarji 


FORESTRY    LESSONS    ON    HOME    WOODLANDS. 

By  WILBUR  II.  MATTOON,  Extension  Specialist  in  Forestry,  Forest  Service,  and 
ALVIN  DILLE,  Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education,  States  Relations  Service. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction 

Sources  of  information 

The  survey 

Illustrative  material 

The  home  project . 

Lesson  I.  Forest    trees    and    forest 

types 

II.  Location    and    extent    of 

woodlands 

III.  Economic  value  of  the  for- 
est  

IV.  Products    from    the   home 
forest 


Page. 
1 
2 
2 
3 
3 


10 


13 


Lesson  V.  Using  farm  timber 

VI.  Measuring  and  estimating 

timber 

VII.  Marketing  farm  timber 

VIII.  Protecting  the  woods 

IX.  Improving  the  home  forest 

by  cutting 

X.  Growth  of  trees  and  for- 
ests  

XI.  Forest  reproduction 

XII.  Woodlands  and  farm  man- 
agement  

Supplement 


Page. 
15 

17 
18 
20 

23 

25 
26 

32 
34 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  right  handling  of  the  home  forest  has  come  to  be  a  matter  of 
recognized  importance  in  farm  management.  Farming  touches  for- 
estry at  a  number  of  different  points.  The  farm  requires  timber 
for  the  building  and  repair  of  houses,  barns,  sheds,  fences,  and  tele- 
phone lines.  It  needs  more  or  less  wood  for  fuel,  and  it  should  have 
some  woodland  also  for  protecting  the  soil  against  erosion  on  steep 
slopes,  for  shelter  for  growing  crops  and  live  stock  against  the  hot, 
dry  winds  of  midsummer,  the  cold  winds  of  winter,  and  likewise  for 
the  comfort  of  man,  and  the  home  of  game  animals.  ' 

A  farm  without  some  woods  is  less  attractive  as  a  place  to  live 
and  usually  less  valuable  than  one  with  at  least  a  little  woodland  and 
some  forest  trees  scattered  about.  Thus  woodlands  have  a  place 
both  in  the  management  of  the  farm  and  in  the  development  of  the 
community. 

The  lessons  which  follow  present  the  subject  of  farm  forestry  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  important  local  kinds  of  forest  trees  and  their 
uses,  the  proper  location  of  woodlands  on  the  farm,  their  economic 
value  to  the  farm,  the  different  farm  timber  products,  measuring  and 
marketing  timber,  utilizing  timber  rightly  on  the  farm,  protecting 
and  improving  woodlands,  and  planting  young  timber.  A  knowl- 
edge of  farm  forestry,  applied  along  simple  lines,  should  make  farm- 


435001 


2  DEPlK'TME^r  BtTLKETlX  863,  U.  S.  DEFT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

ing  iriofe  'profitable: :  -These* lessons  have  been  prepared  to  give  to 
the  organized  school  work  in  elementary  agriculture  additional 
impetus  in  forestry,  to  provide  material  for  instruction  that  is  within 
the  range  of  elementary  pupils,  and  to  furnish  a  topic  for  home 
projects  that  may  be  worked  out  profitably  to  every  community  and 
with  real  educational  value  to  the  pupils  themselves. 

SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. 

Practically  all  the  subject  matter  for  class  use  and  instructions 
for  home  projects  will  be  found  in  bulletins  available,  either  free  or 
at  a  small  cost.  Almost  every  State  agricultural  college  has  pub- 
lished one  or  more  bulletins  on  some  phase  of  forestry,  and  in  most 
instances  these  may  be  had  for  the  asking.  Address  the  dean  of  the 
agricultural  college. 

The  Farmers'  Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture referred  to  in  this  bulletin  will  cover  many  of  the  topics  to 
be  studied.  Bulletins  in  this  list  will  be  sent  free,  so  long  as  the  • 
supply  lasts,  to  any  resident  of  the  United  States,  upon  application 
to  his  Senator,  Representative,  or  Delegate  in  Congress,  or  to  the 
Chief  of  the  Division  of  Publications,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C.  Because  of  the  limited  supply,  appli- 
cants are  urged  to  select  only  a  few  numbers,  choosing  those  which 
are  of  special  interest,  and  ordering  but  one  copy  of  each.  When 
the  free  supply  has  been  exhausted,  a  number  are  yet  for  sale  by 
the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  at  5  cents  each.  Other  publications  of  this 
department  are  also  for  sale  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
but  these  are  more  often  technical  bulletins  and  of  interest  to  those 
only  who  wish  to  specialize  in  the  subject. 

Frequently  revised  classified  lists  of  department  publications  on 
different  phases  of  agriculture,  one  of  which  is  on  the  subject  of 
forestry,  are  issued  by  the  Division  of  Agricultural  Instruction, 
States  Relations  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  teach- 
ers' use.  The  teacher  will  find  that  a  number  of  the  textbooks  on 
forestry  are  suited  to  her  needs,  and  that  some  of  the  elementary 
textbooks  may  be  used  by  the  pupils. 

In  addition  to  the  Farmers'  Bulletins  and  other  Department  Bulle- 
tins, the  Forest  Service  issues  a  number  of  circulars  on  various 
phases  of  forestry  which  may  be  obtained  directly  from  that  division. 

THE  SURVEY. 

One  of  the  means  by  which  the  teacher  may  become  informed 
about  the  forestry  interests  of  the  district  is  a  woodland  survey. 
The  pupils  may  assist  in  obtaining  this  information,  but  a  first-hand 
knowledge  obtained  by  the  teacher  will  be  a  valuable  aid. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON   HOME   WOODLANDS.  3 

This  survey  should  include  the  kind  of  woodland,  whether  hard- 
wood, conifer,  or  mixed  type,  the  important  species  of  trees  in  the 
forest  stand,  in  respect  to  their  abundance  and  their  use  and  com- 
mercial value,  the  leading  rough  timber  products  that  have  been 
sold,  and  the  prices  received  in  the  woods  or  shipping  point.  This 
information  may  be  collected  and  tabulated. 

A  map  of  the  district  may  be  procured,  or,  if  not  available,  one  can 
be  drawn  on  a  large  sheet  by  the  pupils.  On  this  map  the  homes  and 
farms  of  the  pupils  are  to  be  located.  Place  signs,  emblems,  or 
colored  bits  of  paper  to  represent  various  facts  from  your  tabula- 
tions; for  example,  colored  circles  to  represent  young,  middle  age, 
or  mature  woodland,  squares  to  represent  timber  products  sold,  etc. 
Additional  facts  may  be  placed  on  this  map,  taking  especial  note  of 
the  acreage  per  farm,  interest  in  taking  care  of  standing  timber,  etc. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  MATERIAL. 

Construct  a  chart  showing  the  relation  in  size  of  crown  and  trunk 
of  a  typical  tree  growing  in  the  open  (limby)  and  a  tree  in  a  close 
stand  (long,  smooth  trunk).  Illustrate  by  a  diagram  the  maximum 
wood  production  per  acre  and  quality  production  of  good  timber, 
by  a  crowded  stand  of  trees  and  a  thinned  stand  formerly  containing 
more  trees  per  acre. 

Make  drawings  of  the  cross  section  of  a  tree  trunk  showing  how 
the  tree  increases  by  a  new  ring  of  growth  each  year.  Collect  leaf 
specimens  of  the  trees  of  the  district  and  mount  same  on  cardboard 
after  pressing  and  drying  them.  Collect  samples  of  the  wood  of  the 
trees  of  the  locality  of  approximately  uniform  size  and  mount  them 
on  boards,  or  hang  them  in  frames  or  racks  especially  constructed. 

If  possible,  obtain  like  specimens  of  the  woods  of  other  localities. 
These  samples  may  be  classified  and  mounted  into  groups  such  as 
hardwoods  and  softwoods,  or  oaks,  maples,  pines,  etc.  At  least  a 
small  collection  of  such  woods  should  be  a  part  of  the  equipment  of 
every  school.  Charts  showing  the  relative  importance  and  uses  of 
the  most  abundant  woods  should  be  made. 

Write  to  the  Division  of  Agricultural  Instruction,  States  Relations 
Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for 
list  of  lantern-slide  sets  with  lecture  syllabi  on  the  different  phases 
of  forestry.  These  sets  of  slides  are  loaned  to  teachers  free  of  charge. 

THE  HOME  PROJECT. 

It  is  agreed  by  teachers  of  agriculture  that  instruction  in  that  sub- 
ject should  follow  certain  definite  lines:  (1)  It  should  be  seasonal. 
(2)  It  should  be  local  in  its  interests  and  development.  (3)  It 
should  meet  the  interests  of  the  pupils.  (4)  It  should  be  practical. 


4  DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTUKE. 

The  home-project  plan  affords  the  best  means  of  meeting  these  con- 
ditions, especially  the  practical  side.  The  pupil  is  working  out  for 
himself  the  principles  and  theories  taught  in  the  classroom. 

The  term  "home  project,"  applied  to  instruction  in  elementary 
and  secondary  agriculture,  includes  each  of  the  following  requisites : 
(1)  There  must  be  a  plant  for  work  at  home  covering  a  season  more 
or  less  extended.  (2)  It  must  be  a  part  of  the  instruction  in  agri- 
culture of  the  school.  (3)  There  must  be  a  problem  more  or  less 
new  to  the  pupil.  (4)  The  parents  and  pupil  should  agree  with  the 
teacher  on  the  plan.  (.5)  Some  competent  person  must  supervise  the 
home  work.  (6)  Detailed  records  of  time,  method,  cost,  and  income 
must  be  honestly  kept.  (7)  A  written  report  based  on  the  record 
must  be  submitted  to  the  teacher.  This  report  may  be  in  the  form 
of  a  booklet. 

Type  of  forestry  project. — A  project  in  forestry  must  of  necessity 
be  of  a  much  different  type  than  a  project  in  farm  crops  or  animal 
production.  The  slow  growth  of  forest  trees  and  other  factors  in- 
volved make  it  a  project  covering  more  than  one  season.  However, 
forest  projects  can  be  conducted  and  made  of  much  value  to  the 
student  and  community.  Among  the  forestry  projects  that  can  be 
carried  out,  the  following  are  suggested :  The  renovation  of  a  farm 
woodland,  the  replanting  of  a  woodland  and  subsequent  care  of  the 
young  trees,  the  planting  of  forest  trees  on  some  eroding  lands  or 
other  waste  ground  on  the  farm,  mapping  and  finding  area  of  a  forest 
tract,  cutting  and  marketing  farm  forest  products,  giving  especial 
attention  to  the  proper  cutting  of  trees  and  to  the  removal  of  the 
parts  of  the  trees  not  marketed,  a  study  and  survey  of  forest  fires,  in- 
sect enemies,  and  the  diseases  of  the  common  forest  trees. 

Lesson  I.    FOREST  TREES  AND  FOREST  TYPES. 

Problem. — To  learn  to  know  at  sight  the  chief  forest  trees  of  the 
locality. 

Sources  of  information. — Bulletins  of  the  State  colleges  of  agricul- 
ture and  State  foresters  on  forest  trees;  Forestry  Bulletin  17;  forest 
tree  key  and  description  of  100  important  forest  trees  on  pages  40-48 
of  Supplement.  The  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Washington,  D.  C.,  is  ready  to  identify  leaves,  fruit,  buds,  and 
wood  that  puzzle  the  young  forester. 

Illustrative  material. — The  best  illustrative  material  for  this  lesson 
is  to  be  found  in  the  woods,  where  the  trees  may  be  seen  and  their 
characteristics  studied.  In  case  this  can  not  be  done,  pictures  of 
typical  trees  may  be  used.  Blackboard  sketches  showing  the  form 
of  different  trees  are  easily  made  and  should  be  used  in  this  lesson. 

Topics  of  study. — Getting  acquainted  with  the  important  kinds  of 
forest  trees  in  your  locality.  Their  various  common  names  and  other 


FORESTRY   LESSONS   ON   HOME   WOODLANDS.  5 

names.  A  few  trees  are  known  widely  by  the  same  common  name, 
but  many  are  called  by  different  names  in  various  sections  of  the 
country.  The  importance  of  botanical  names  for  certain  identifica- 
tion. Distinguishing  the  different  kinds  or  species  of  trees  by  some 
well-marked  characteristics  of  leaf,  bark,  fruit,  seed,  buds,  or  twig 
arrangement. 

Conifers :  Trees  bearing  cones,  such 'as  the  pines,  spruces,  firs,  hem- 
locks, cedars,  junipers,  tamarack,  and  cypress.  How  does  bald 
cypress  differ  from  the  others  ?  Distinguishing  characteristics  of  each 
group  or  genus,  and  something  about  its  different  members  or  species, 
particularly  those  that  occur  locally. 

Hardwoods :  Trees,  most  of  which  have  wood  harder  than  that  of 
the  conifers  and  broad  leaves  which  are  deciduous,  or  are  shed  in  the 
fall.  Kinds  of  hardwood  trees  which  are  evergreen.  Group  the 
hardwood  trees  into  general  groups,  such  as  the  oaks,  maples,  elms, 
and  others,  and  identify  as  many  different  species  of  each  as  possible. 

Kinds  of  trees  which  are  associated  together  in  different  forest 
types,  such  as  (a)  ridge  type,  (b)  slope  or  cove  type,  (c)  bottomland 
type,  and  (d)  swamp  type.  What  trees  locally  are  associated  to 
make  (a)  coniferous  forest  type,  (&)  pure  hardwood  type,  and  (c) 
mixed  hardwood  and  conifer  type. 

Practical  exercises. — Gathering  leaves  and  fruit  of  the  important 
local  forest  trees ;  press  in  wrapping  paper,  folded  and  labeled  with 
place  and  date. 

Studying  the  shape  and  size  of  leaves ;  trace  a  leaf  of  each  of  the 
important  kinds  of  trees,  and  label  with  name,  place  where  found, 
and  date. 

Grouping  trees  by  kinds  of  fruit  borne — nuts,  keys,  berries,  cones, 
etc. 

Collect  samples  of  winter  buds  from  leading  kinds  of  trees,  label- 
ing with  name  of  tree,  place  of  collection,  and  date. 

Study  of  winter  buds,  with  drawings  of  buds  and  twig  arrange- 
ment. 

Collect  tree  blossoms  from  red  and  silver  maples,  willows,  catalpa, 
elm,  oak,  dogwood,  tulip  poplar,  basswood,  buckeye,  ^and  magnolia. 

Field  study.'1 — Now  to  the  woods,  that  may  come  into  personal 
touch  with  the  forest  trees  of  your  own  neighborhood. 

Leaves:  The  leaf  is  the  trade-mark  of  the  trees.  Gather  the 
leaves,  study  and  compare  them  to  gain  a  first  knowledge  of  the  trees 
as  individuals,  then  as  groups.  The  tulip  poplar  writes  its  name 
plainly  upon  its  square-cut  leaf,  but  the  boxelder  has  a  leaf  some- 
what resembling  the  ash,  though  its  seed  is  similar  to  the  maple  key. 
Wherein  does  the  ash  leaf  differ  from  that  of  the  locust  or  the 

1  The  sections  on.  field  study  in  Lessons  I  and  III  were  contributed  by  Miss  Lucy  Keller- 
house,  of  the  Forest  Service. 


6  DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

hickory?     The  oaks  are  divided  into  the  red  and  the  white  oaks. 
What  is  a  typical  leaf  of  each  class  ? 


FIG.  1. — White  oak,  a  woodland  tree  of  wide  distribution  and  high  value,  representative 
of  the  pure  hardwood  type. 

You  will  probably  begin  this  study  in  the  autumn,  so  before  the 
leaves  fall  and  your  memory  of  them  fails,  press  and  either  mount 
them  or  place  in  paper  folders,  and  label  with  name,  place  where 
found,  and  date. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON    HOME   WOODLANDS.  7 

If  the  black  gum  is  now  reddening  the  red  gum  will  soon  begin  to 
burn,  and  presently  all  the  woods  will  seem  as  if  on  fire.  The  autumn 
colors  will  help  to  identify  your  trees  and  beautify  your  herbarium.  A 
few  of  the  broadleaf  trees  and  all  the  conifers  save  one  are  evergreen. 


FIG.  2. — White  oak  leaf,   flower,  fruit,  and  winter  bud  :  a,   Pistillate  or  female  flower  ; 
1),  staminate  or  male  flower  ;  c,  winter  bud. 

Separate  the  conifers  into  the  pines,  spruces,  cedars,  or  other  cone- 
bearers  of  your  woods,  and  divide  into  as  many  species  as  you  find. 
Draw  a  diagram,  and  under  the  two  heads,broadleaf  trees  and  conifers, 
group  the  trees  that  you  identify,  with  a  short  description  of  each. 
179374C  — 20— Bull.  863 2 


8  DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Fruit :  While  you  are  gathering  leaves,  bring  in  the  fruit,  or  seed, 
that  you  find — the  pulpy  fruit,  nuts,  berries,  pods,  winged  seed,  and 


FIG.   3. — Leaf   outlines  of  a  few   important   species  of   forest   trees.      (Reduced — not  to 

uniform   scale.) 

tufted  seed  of  the  broadleaf  trees  and  the  cones  of  the  conifers,  and 
add  to  your  herbarium. 


FOEESTRY  LESSONS   ON   HOME   WOODLANDS.  9 

Buds:  As  the  leaves  fall,  gather  the  bare  branches  and  study  the 
winter  buds  that  hold  next  year's  leaves  and  flowers,  from  the  big 
bud  that  tips  the  horse-chestnut  to  the  long,  sharp  bud  of  the  beech. 
Label  them  as  you  did  the  leaves. 

Bark:  The  sycamore  bark  tells  its  own  story,  but  do  you  know 
the  bark  of  the  elm  from  that  of  the  ash  ?  Contrast  the  glove-fitting 
bark  of  the  beech  with  the  rough-and-ready  coat  of  the  shagbark 
hickory. 

Branches:  Each  tree  has  its  own  way  of  branching,  though  its 
form  is  not  always  so  definite  as  the  red  cedar  spire.  What  is  typi- 
cal of  the  white  oak  bough?  The  leaves  of  the  scarlet  and  the  pin 
oak  are  considerably  alike,  but  what  is  the  character  of  each  tree? 
Draw  a  leafless  elm. 

Flowers:  When  spring  comes  and  the  buds  are  bursting,  do  not 
forget  the  flowers  of  the  forest  trees.  They  form  a  clock  dial  for  the 
advancing  year.  So  as  they  bloom  in  succession,  bring  in  the  blos- 
soms of  the  willow,  the  maple,  the  elm,  and  the  cottonwood,  until 
you  have  gathered  the  last  flower  of  June,  and  seed  are  on  the  wing. 

While  you  have  been  getting  acquainted  with  your  trees,  you 
have  learned  that  they  prefer  certain  localities;  you  have  found  the 
willow  by  the  stream,  the  yellow  or  tulip  poplar  in  the  valley,  the 
red  oak  on  the  higher  ground,  for  one  needs  much  moisture  in  its 
soil  while  another  will  grow  in  a  drier  situation.  You  have  dis- 
covered that  certain  trees  "  hobnob  "  together  because  of  similar  re- 
quirements for  soil,  moisture,  and  light.  In  this  way  you  will  learn 
to  group  your  trees  into  forest  types  when  you  begin  your  practical 
work  as  the  forester  of  your  home  woodland. 

Correlations. — Drawing:  -Sketch  the  different  types  of  trees  in 
the  district;  make  drawings  or  tracings  of  the  different  shaped 
leaves.  Mount  these  drawings  and  file  with  other  illustrative  ma- 
terial. 

Language :  An  account  of  a  field  trip  carefully  written  will  make 
a  good  English  exercise.  A  tree  booklet  describing  the  different 
types  of  trees,  telling  where  they  are  found,  some  of  their  charac- 
teristics and  uses,  illustrated  by  original  drawings  and  neatly  bound 
with  an  attractive  cover  page,  will  furnish  an  excellent  drill  both 
in  language  and  in  drawing. 

Lesson  II.    LOCATION  AND  EXTENT  OF  WOODLANDS. 

Problem. — To  study  places  about  the  farm  where  trees  can  be 
grown  profitably. 

Sources  of  informantion. — Farmers'  Bulletins  358,  745,  1071,  and 
1117;  Department  Bulletin  481. 

Topics  for  study. — Places  about  the  farm  where  forest  trees  and 
woods  should  be  kept.  Timber  is  a  poor  land  crop.  Places  where 


10         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEFT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

forest  trees  are  profitable:  (1)  Poor  soils.  (2)  Steep  slopes.  (3) 
Eroding  soils.  (4)  Rocky  land.  (5)  Wet  land.  (6)  Unused  cor- 
ners or  waste  places. 

Extent  of  woodlands  in  the  locality :  Proportion  of  crop  land  and 
woodland.  The  total  acres  of  woods  on  10  to  20  representative  farms 
in  the  locality. 

Practical  exercises. — From  the  data  gathered  in  the  survey  con- 
struct a  chart  showing  the  proportion  of  crop  land  and  woodland, 
the  total  crop  acreage  and  the  total  woodland  acreage.  Study  the 
places  where  you  find  trees  growing  and  list  such  locations  as  in- 
dicated in  topics  for  study.  What  type  of  trees  do  you  find  com- 
monly growing  in  each  of  these  localities  ?  What  farms  could  profit- 
ably plant  forest  trees?  What  sort  of  trees  should  be  planted  in 
case  a  young  forest  is  established  ? 

Correlations. — Drawing:  Draw  a  map  of  a  farm  or  of  the  school 
district,  locating  the  poor  soils,  steep  slopes,  eroding  soils,  rocky 
land,  wet  land,  unused  corners  or  waste  land,  and  mark  on  this  map 
the  names  of  the  trees  that  grow  on  these  places  or  that  could  be 
profitably  grown  thereon. 

Language :  Write  a  report  showing  the  advantages  of  using  the 
poor  soils  and  waste  lands  for  tree  planting,  giving  examples  from 
the  farms  of  the  district  if  possible. 

Arithmetic:  Problems  showing  comparative  acreage  of  crop  land 
and  woodland,  and  percentages  of  each,  will  be  suggested  in  the 
study  of  this  lesson. 

Lesson  III.    ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  THE  FOREST. 

Problem. — To  learn  the  value  of  a  forest  as  conserver  of  soil 
moisture,  as  protection  against  soil  erosion,  as  a  shelter  against  ex- 
tremes of  temperature,  and  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  farm  income. 

Sources  of  information. — Farmers'  Bulletins  358,  715,  745,  788, 
1071,  and  1117;  Department  Bulletin  481;  Yearbook  Separate  688; 
Forestry  Misc.  F-I. 

Illustrative  material. — The  best  illustrative  material  will  be  found 
in  a  field  trip  to  the  woods  and  field.  Actual  examples  of  the  use  of 
the  trees  can  be  pointed  out.  If  a  field  trip  is  not  practicable,  illus- 
trations may  be  clipped  from  papers  and  magazines  showing  the 
erosion  on  unprotected  hillsides  and  the  use  of  trees  as  shelters  in 
pastures  and  about  the  farm  buildings. 

Topics  for  study. — With  an  acquaintance  formed  with  the  different 
species  of  trees,  it  will  be  worth  while  to  learn  their  value  both  as  in- 
dividual trees  and  associated  together  in  woodlands. 

Timber  or  wood  products.  Trees,  grouped  according  to  their  value 
for  wood  or  timber.  (This  is  expanded  in  Lesson  IV.) 


FORESTRY   LESSONS   ON    HOME    WOODLANDS. 


11 


How  a  forest* cover  conserves  the  water  from  rainfall  or  melting 
snow. 

Flow  of  streams  from  open  and  forested  land;  seepage  and 
springs.  Protecting  watersheds  of  city  reservoirs  and  headquarters 
of  large  streams  from  erosion  and  floods.  State  and  municipal 
forests.  The  150,000,000  acres  of  Government  National  Forests  held 
for  protection  of  watersheds  and  streams  and  for  a  permanent  tim- 
ber supply.  Private  owners  hold  four-fifths  of  the  total  standing 
timber  in  the  United  States. 


FIG.  4.— The  forest  floor.  Leaves  and  twig  litter  on  the  ground  beneath  the  trees  spongy 
layer  of  decomposed  vegetable  matter  or  humus,  this  and  the  lower  layer  of  soil  inter- 
laced with  tree  roots  and  rootlets,  and"  the  clay  subsoil.  Dense  growth  of  seedling  and 
sapling  trees  covering  and  protecting  the  soil. 

How  trees  protect  the  soil  against  erosion,  and  the  formation  of 
gullies  on  steep  slopes.  Examples  of  local  hillsides  and  regions  of 
the  United  States. 

^  Effect  of  woods  as  shelter  against  hot  dry  winds  and  cold  winds 
for  growing  grain  and  fruit  crops,  live  stock,  and  the  farm  home. 
The  difference  felt  in  temperature  of  the  air  in  midsummer  out  in 
the  open  road  or  field  and  in  the  shade  of  a  single  tree  or  of  woods. 
The  same  as  experienced  on  a  cold  windy  day  in  winter. 

Field  study.— IK  an  excursion  with  the  teacher  to  the  hills  and 
fields  the  class  can  learn,  by  actual  observation,  the  bond  between 
the  forest  and  the  river. 


12         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

As  soon  as  the  pupil  leaves  the  open  and  enters  the  cool  shade  of 
the  woods  he  will  note  the  forest  floor — the  undergrowth  of  young 
trees  and  shrubs,  the  ferns  and  moss,  and  the  litter  of  fallen  leaves. 
With  his  jackknife,  or  a  trowel,  let  him  dig  down  beneath  this  cover 
into  the  mold  of  many  years  of  fallen  leaves.  The  soil  will  be  spongy 
and  moist.  What  happens  when  rain  falls  or  snow  melts?  Under 
the  shadow  of  the  forest  it  sinks  into  the  spongy  earth.  (Fig.  4.) 

What  becomes  of  the  rain  and  snow  that  the  forest  has  soaked  up 
like  a  sponge?  Find  a  spring.  This  is  where  the  stored  water  is 
seeping  out  to  feed  the  streams.  The  rainfall  that  has  been  held  back 


FIG.  5. — Effect  of  deforestation.     Washing  of  soil  and  devastation  of  valuable  farm  lands 

at  tbe  heads  of  streams. 

in  the  hidden  reservoir  of  the  forest  is  here  transformed  into  a 
steady  supply  of  water  for  the  pasture,  the  mill,  and  the  city. 

Let  the  class  now  return  to  the  open  and  dig  into  the  soil  on  the 
unwooded  slope.  It  will  be  found  dry  and  hard.  What  happens 
when  the  rain  falls  or  the  snow  melts  on  the  open  hillside  ?  It  is  not 
held  back  and  absorbed,  but  rushes  down  the  slope.  In  a  heavy  rain 
the  streams  rise  rapidly.  Perhaps  the  class  will  find  a  bridge  that 
has  been  carried  away  in  a  freshet.  Someone  may  tell  of  the  log 
bridge  on  the  farm  that  was  destroyed.  Then  what  happens  when 
the  winter  snow  melts  upon  the  unprotected  mountain  slopes  and 
the  spring  rains  swell  the  rivers?  (Figs  5  and  6.) 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON    HOME   WOODLANDS. 


13 


While  the  class  is  on  the  open  hillside,  places  will  be  found  where 
the  soil,  which  has  no  roots  to  bind  it,  has  been  washed  away  by  the 
rain,  and  on  some  steep  slope  there  will  be  deep  gullies  dug  into  the 
ground. 

Where  does  the  soil  go  that  is  washed  down  the  slope?  Into  the 
stream.  Perhaps  the  stream  carries  the  silt  into  the  water  supply  of 
a  city.  If  there  is  a  river  near,  a  sand  bar  may  be  found  that  has 
washed  down  from  the  hill  country.  What  do  muddy  rivers  mean 
to  the  Harbors  near  the  coast?  Who  has  seen  a  dredge  at  work 
scooping  up  the  silt  to  keep  the  channel  free?  This  means  a  vast 
expense  to  the  country. 

The  pupil  who  has  noted  these  facts  about  woodland,  soil,  and 
stream,  will  begin  to  see  the  relation  which  the  forests  of  our  country 


FIG.  6.- 


-Effect  of  deforestation.     Sand  bars  in  the  stream  channels.     Millions  of  dollars 
are  spent  yearly  in  dredging  our  rivers  to  keep  them   navigable. 


bear  to  the  well-being  of  the  land.  The  little  examples  that  he  finds 
in  his  own  neighborhood  of  soil  protection  and  good  streams,  of 
erosion  and  flood  damage,  are  intimations  of  the  larger  meaning  of 
the  Nation's  forests  to  farm  land  and  industry  and  commerce.  His 
own  home  woodland  is  a  part  of  nature's  plan  to  aid  man  and  his 
enterprise. 

Lesson  IV.    PRODUCTS  FROM  THE  HOME  FOREST. 

Problem. — What  products  from  the  home  forest  can  be  utilized 
by  the  farm  both  for  home  use  and  for  the  market  ? 

Sources  of  information. — Farmers'  Bulletins  516,  715,  1071,  and 
1117;  Department  Bulletins  12,  605,  and  753;  Yearbook  Separate  779. 


14         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEFT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Illustrative  material. — Prepare  a  wall  chart  showing  in  a  tabulated 
form  the  various  wood  products.  In  each  product  column  write  the 
name  of  the  tree  or,  better  still,  place  a  sample  of  the  wood  that 
furnished  that  product.  Prepare  another  chart  showing  in  like 
manner  other  timber  products  such  as  nuts,  roots,  bark,  gum,  and 
edible  fruits,  listing  the  trees  the  same  as  in  above  chart.  Any  of  the 
products  from  root,  bark,  gum,  etc.,  will  also  make  interesting  and 
useful  illustrative  material. 

Topics  for  study. — Wood,  in  a  rough  state,  is  the  principal  farm 
timber  product.  What  kinds  of  wood  are  used  for  the  following 
rough  products :  (1)  Saw  logs;  (2)  poles  and  piling ;  (3)  fence  posts; 
(4)  bolts,  blocks,  or  billets  for  (a)  cooperage,  (&)  implement  handles, 


FIG.  7. — High-grade  saw  logs  and  rough  stave  boards  cut  from  woodlands. 

(c)  wagon  and  automobile  spokes,  (d)  pulpwood;  (5)  crossties;  and 
(6)  fuel  wood.  The  sizes  and  other  requirements  for  each  of  these 
various  wood  products,  including  the  species  of  trees  which  are  best 
suited  and  bring  highest  prices  on  the  market. 

Forest  trees  which  produce  nuts  of  commercial  value ;  roots,  bark, 
gum,  and  edible  fruit.  List  of  these  products  under  each  head  and 
what  they  are  used  for  commercially. 

Lumber,  manufactured  from  saw  logs,  is  a  secondary  product  from 
the  woodland.  (How  to  measure  sawed  lumber  treated  in  Lesson 
VI.)  Its  manufacture  is  essentially  that  of  the  sawmill  man,  rather 
than  the  farmer. 

Practical  exercises. — What  is  the  chief  use  of  wood  in  the  district  ? 
What  other  forest  products  are  made  or  used  here?  What  trees 
furnish  the  greater  amount  of  wood?  What  kind  of  lumber  is 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON    HOME   WOODLANDS.  15 

sawed  in  the  district  ?  What  becomes  of  this  lumber  ?  If  there  are 
any  wood  product  factories  in  the  district,  arrange  for  a  trip  to  the 
same  and  study  the  various  processes  from  the  rough  wood  to  the 
finished  products.  What  timber  in  the  district  is  most  valuable? 
Why  ?  An  interesting  study  to  make  is  the  part  forest  products  play 
in  the  construction  of  machinery,  transportation  lines,  airplanes,  etc. 

Correlations. — Geography :  Trace  the  timber  products  of  the  dis- 
trict to  their  market.  In  a  like  manner  locate  the  source  of  timber 
products  brought  into  the  district  and  trace  their  probable  route. 
On  a  State  map  locate  the  timber  areas  and  learn,  if  possible,  the 
important  kinds  of  trees  in  each  area.  Locate  the  great  lumber 
regions  of  the  United  States.  From  what  ports  are  forest  products 
of  the  United  States  exported? 

Arithmetic:  Construct  problems  in  which  the  prices  of  timber 
products  are  used.  Use,  if  possible,  the  value  of  the  forest  products, 
the  price  of  timber  land,  and  prices  of  the  miscellaneous  forest 
products. 

Language :  Make  a  study  of  the  forest  products  of  the  district  and 
write  a  report  of  your  study.  Another  report  of  value  will  be  that 
on  the  forest  products  that  are  imported  into  the  district. 

Lesson  V.    USING  FARM  TIMBER. 

Problem. — To  discover  the  right  uses  of  farm  timber. 

Sources  of  information. — Farmers'  Bulletins  516,  Til,  T15,  T44, 
1023,  1071,  and  HIT;  Department  Bulletins  718  and  T53;  Forestry 
Bulletins  80  and  144;  publications  of  State  foresters  and  colleges  of 
agriculture. 

Illustrative  material. — Again  a  field  trip  will  furnish  the  best  illus- 
trative material  for  this  lesson.  Note  the  height  of  the  stumps 
where  timber  has  been  cut,  the  careless  felling  of  trees  causing  the 
injuring  of  young  trees,  the  tops  and  large  limbs  left  in  the  forest. 
In  the  absence  of  a  field  trip,  pictures  may  be  shown  illustrating  the 
points  mentioned  above. 

Topics  for  study. — The  right  using  of  timber  on  the  farm  should 
begin  at  the  time  the  tree  is  cut.  Waste  of  good  timber  in  the 
woods  is  altogether  too  common  nowadays,  with  high  values  on  prac- 
tically every  kind  of  tree. 

High  stumps  mean  usually  that  the  best  quality  of  the  timber  in 
the  tree  is  wasted.  Often  the  value  of  the  timber  left  in  high  stumps 
is  sufficient  to  pay  for  all  the  costs  of  logging.  Saw  logs  can  now 
be  taken  profitably  from  the  tops  which  had  to  be  left  only  a  few 
years  ago.  Wherever  possible  the  tops  should  be  worked  up  into 
crossties,  mine  props,  or  firewood.  By  careless  felling  of  trees  much 
promising  young  timber  is  broken  and  destroyed. 
179374°— 20— Bull.  863 3 


16        DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

High  grade  and  valuable  timber  should  not  be  used  in  places  about 
the  farm  where  less  valuable  woods  will  answer  the  purpose.  Some- 
times choice  white  oak  worth  $40  a  thousand  feet  in  the  log  for 
veneers,  is  split  up  into  fence  posts,  or  black  walnut  used  for  farm 
gates  because  it  "  won't  split."  Substitutes  can  be  found  by  children 
upon  inquiry  from  their  parents  or  neighbors. 

Small  and  young  timber  cut  in  making  improvement  thinnings  in 
overcrowded  stands  can  often  be  sold  or  used  on  the  farm  for  posts, 
poles,  or  firewood,  instead  of  being  allowed  to  decay  in  the  woods. 

Treating  of  fence  posts :  Short-lived  woods  when  soaked  in  hot  and 
then  in  cold  creosote  last  from  10  to  20  years  as  fence  posts.  As  the 
supply  of  long-lived  woods,  such  as  black  locust,  osage  orange,  red 


FIG  8. — Small  pine  logs  cut  in  improving  the  woods  by  thinning. 

cedar,  chestnut,  mulberry,  and  catalpa  become  scarce,  treated  fence 
posts  are  being  increasingly  used.  Most  all  farms  have  some  com- 
mon woods  growing,  practically  all  of  which  take  coal-tar  creosote 
readily. 

Practical  exercises. — In  a  field  trip  to  the  farm  forests  note  what 
care  is  taken  in  felling  trees,  the  disposition  of  limbs  and  tops,  and 
the  height  of  the  stumps.  What  examples  may  be  found  where  an 
expensive  wood  is  used  that  could  be  replaced  by  a  cheaper  sub- 
stitute? What  high-priced  timber  is  found  in  the  district?  What 
is  the  common  method  of  treating  fence  posts?  How  do  telephone 
and  telegraph  companies  protect  their  poles  ?  What  good  and  what 
bad  example  of  the  use  of  farm  timber  can^you  mention  ? 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON   HOME   WOODLANDS.  17 

Correlations. — Language :  Make  a  written  or  an  oral  report  on  the 
methods  of  cutting  and  handling  timber  on  the  farm  with  especial 
reference  to  disposing  of  waste  timber.  Write  a  short  account  on 
the  best  methods  used  in  the  preservation  of  timber  used  in  posts, 
railroad  ties,  and  other  lumber. 

Arithmetic:  Measure  the  height  of  stumps  in  a  cut-over 'piece  of 
timber  and  calculate  the  amount  of  lumber  wasted.  If  one  hundred 
T-foot  black  walnut  fence  posts  averaging  5  inches  square  in  size  can 
be  replaced  by  100  locust  or  red  cedar  posts  of  the  same  size,  calcu- 
late, on  the  basis  of  local  prices,  the  amount  saved  by  the  substitution. 
If  creosoting  a  softwood  post  costs  15  cents  each  for  treating  but  will 
make  it  last  three  times  as  long  as  one  not  treated,  assuming  average 
present  local  prices  for  labor  in  replacements  and  cost  of  untreated 
posts,  what  will  be  saved  in  20  years  in  fencing  a  quarter  section  of 
land  with  posts  spaced  12  feet  apart  ? 

Lesson  VI.     MEASURING  AND  ESTIMATING  TIMBER. 

Problem. — How  shall  timber  be  measured  and  estimated  ? 

Sources  of  information. — Farmers'  Bulletin  715 ;  colleges  of  agri- 
culture or  State  foresters'  publications ;  rule  for  scaling  logs,  page  39. 

Topics  for  study. — Measuring  saw  logs:  Show  how  the  diameter 
at  the  small  end  is  found  by  measuring  inside  the  bark  along  an 
average  line,  or  two  measurements  taken  at  right  angles  and  the 
two  averaged.  The  diameter  and  length  found,  the  approximate  lum- 
ber contents  is  found  by  referring  to  a  copy  of  some  log  rule ;  prob- 
ably the  most  common  rule  in  use  is  the  Doyle,  although  for  small 
logs  under  16  to  20  inches  one  of  the  least  accurate  rules,  because 
from  one-third  to  one-half  more  lumber  is  usually  sawed  out  than  is 
shown  by  the  rule.  (See  Supplement,  p.  39.) 

How  bolts  and  billets  are  measured.  What  makes  a  standard 
cord  of  wood? 

Allowances  made  for  defects  in  saw  logs,  bolts,  or  blocks,  and  in 
other  material. 

Estimating  standing  trees:  Finding  approximately  the  contents 
of  standing  trees  in  cords  or  board  feet  of  lumber  by  measuring  the 
diameter  at  breast-height  (4J  feet  above  the  ground),  estimating 
or  measuring  the  number  of  16- foot  log  cuts  in  the  tree,  and  by 
using  volume  tables  given  on  pages  18,  22,  and  23  of  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin 715.  Find  the  merchantable  contents  of  the  tree  expressed  in 
board  feet. 

Estimating  whole  woods:  Applying  the  same  method  to  all  the 
trees  on  a  measured  one-tenth  or  one-quarter  acre,  and  thereby 
estimating  the  contents  per  acre.  Recording  the  measurements  by 
different  species  on  a  simple  blank  form  ruled  in  squares  in  two  direc- 
tions. 


18        DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEFT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Practical  exercises. — This  lesson  should  be  essentially  one  of  prac- 
tice. The  class  should  measure  logs  according  to  the  Doyle  rule, 
standing  trees  by  the  use  of  volume  tables  for  trees,  and  cordwood 
by  dimensions  of  the  piles.  A  good  exercise  for  the  more  advanced 
students  is  to  make  estimates  on  logs  and  standing  trees  and  then 
by  applying  the  Doyle  rule  or  the  volume  table  test  the  accuracy 
of  the  estimates.  The  practical  value  of  this  lesson  is  in  acquaint- 
ing the  pupils  with  com- 
paratively easy  ways  by 
which  they  can  measure 
logs  and  cordwood  and 
estimate  the  amount  of 
lumber  or  cordwood  in  trees. 
Correlations. — The  op- 
erations mentioned  in  the 
practical  exercises  will  af- 
ford abundant  work  in  cal- 
culations and  suggest  a 
varied  list  of  arithmetic 
problems. 

Lesson  VII.     MARKETING 
FARM  TIMBER. 

Problem. — How  shall 
the  farm  timber  be  mar- 
keted to  the  best  advantage. 
Sources  of  informa- 
tion. —  Farmers'  Bulletins 
715  and  1100;  bulletins  of 
the  State  colleges  of  agri- 
culture and  State  foresters. 
Illustrative  material. — 
Timber  price  lists.  Ad- 
dresses of  firms  dealing  in  timber.  Local  prices  for  cordwood,  posts, 
crossties,  and  piling. 

Topics  for  study. — Finding  the  best  markets :  Before  timber  is  cut 
its  approximate  size  and  amount  by  species,  and  its  disposal  should 
be  determined  as  definitely  as  possible.  How  to  find  buyers  of  cut- 
timber  products.  How  are  logs,  bolts  or  billets,  piling,  posts,  cross- 
ties,  and  firewood  generally  sold?  Advertising  in  the  newspapers, 
consulting  neighbors  who  have  recently  sold  timber,  consulting  State 
foresters  and  reliable  experienced  men. 

The  owner  protecting  himself  by  a  simple  form  of  written  con- 
tract: Much  loss  comes  to  sellers  of  timber  products  by  failure  to 


FIG.  U. — Measuring  and  estimating  the  saw  timber 
in  a  stand  of  shortleaf  pine. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON   HOME   WOODLANDS. 


19 


observe  this  precaution  and  to  have  the  agreement  in  proper  written 
form. 

Selling  timber  standing:  Selling  for  a  stated  sum  by  the  acre,  or 
a  lump  sum  for  the  whole  tract  or  "  boundary." 

What  to  sell  and  what  timber  to  keep  growing  in  the  woods ;  what 
timber  to  sell  and  what  to  use  at  home.  Choice  logs  of  certain  woods 
bring  high  prices,  and  can  be  profitably  shipped  long  distances  by 
rail  or  water. 

Cooperative  marketing  of  farm  timber :  Carload  lots  of  logs,  etc., 
the  least  amount  that  can  profitably  be  shipped.  Many  wood  manu- 
facturing concerns  buy  direct  from  producers  in  carload  lots.  A 


FIG.  10. — The  best  timber  brings  high  prices  and  can  usually  be  shipped  for  veneer  or 
quarter-sawed  lumber.     Several  owners  can  join  in  marketing  a  carload  lot. 

farmer  may  not  have  sufficient  white  oak  saw  logs  or  hickory  spoke 
blocks  to  pay  to  ship. 

Practical  exercises. — What  timber  is  being  sold  in  the  district? 
Who  is  buying  it  ?  To  what  place  is  it  being  shipped  ?  What  stand- 
ing timber  is  sold  in  the  district?  What  cooperative  shipping  of 
timber  do  you  find?  Visit  a  wood  yard  and  note  methods  of  han- 
dling the  wood  and  get  prices  per  cord  on  the  different  sizes  of  wood. 

Correlations. — Abundant  exercises  in  arithmetic  will  be  suggested 
by  the  prices  of  timber  and  amounts  sold.  If  a  price  list  of  timber 
and  its  products  at  the  final  market  can  be  had,  some  interesting 
problems  can  be  worked  out  by  comparisons  with  local  prices. 

For  a  language  exercise  make  a  report  on  the  various  kinds  of 
timber  marketed,  prices  paid,  methods  of  transportation,  and  mar- 
kets. 


20        DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
Lesson  VII.     PROTECTING  THE  WOODS. 

Problem. — To  learn  the  best  methods  of  protecting  woodlands,  and 

to  discover  the  kind  and  extent  of  injury  or  loss  due  to  forest  fires. 

!      Sources  of  information. — Farmers'  Bulletins  173  and  711 ;  Forestry 

Circular  205 ;  Department  Bulletins  308  and  787 ;  Yearbook  Separate 

548;  State  publications.    The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  and 


FIG.   11. — Oak  spoke  blocks,  piling,  and   crossties  ready  for  -shipment. 

the  agricultural  colleges  will  be  glad  to  render  assistance  by  identify- 
ing and  furnishing  information  concerning  various  forest  insects 
and  plants. 

Illustrative  material. — Pictures  of  forest  fires,  burnt  over  wood- 
lands, forest  rangers,  their  camps  and  equipment,  copies  of  the 
United  States  Forest  Regulations,  and  charts  for  fire  prevention 


HELP 

PREVENT  WOODS  FIRES. 

BE  SURE  your  match  is  out  before  throwing  it  away. 
DON'T  throw  away  burning  tobacco. 
CHOOSE  a  safe  place  and  make  your  camp  fire  small. 
PUT  OUT  your  fire  with  water  and  then  cover  it  with 
earth. 

DON'T  make  large  brush  heaps.     Choose  a  still  day  for 
burning  and  plow  furrows  to  protect  near-by  woods. 
BE  CAREFUL  WITH  FIRE. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON   HOME   WOODLANDS.  21 

will  make  excellent  illustrative  material.  Pictures  of  trees  damaged 
by  insects  or  fungi,  samples  of  damaged  wood,  samples  of  insecti- 
cides and  materials  used  to  prevent  insects  from  damaging  trees 
should  also  be  used. 

Topics  of  study. — Fire,  the  arch  enemy  of  the  forest :  It  kills  large 
numbers  of  the  smaller  trees  and  kills  or  weakens  the  vitality  of  the 
older  trees;  the  humus  layers  over  the  ground  are  destroyed.  The 
loss  of  the  protective  covering  exerts  a  marked  effect  in  causing  the 
soil  to  dry  out  and  become  hard,  as  a  result  of  which  the  rain  is  shed 
off  rapidly  following  dry  weather,  much  as  when  it  falls  on  a  house 
roof.  Trees  in  farm  woodlands  and  city  parks  are  often  seen  dying 
at  the  tops,  most  usually  from  this  cause. 

Forest  rangers  employed  by  the  States  and  Government  for  the  ad- 
ministration and  protection  of  the  State  and  National  Forests.  What 
type  of  men  are  required  for  forest  rangers  whose  duties  require  them 
to  live  out  of  doors  and  ride  or  work  in  all  kinds  of  weather  ?  Each 
National  Forest  divided  into  districts  in  charge  of  rangers.  Fire  pro- 
tective plans  worked  out  in  great  detail  for  detecting  and  fighting 
fires  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  start.  Fire-fighting  equipment, 
such  as  lookout  peaks  and  towers,  telephone  lines,  and  fire-fighting 
tool  boxes  at  convenient  points  over  the  forest.  Airplane  patrol  and 
the  wireless  telephone  are  being  successfully  used. 

Protection  for  State  forest  lands  by  similarly  organized  methods. 
Federal  cooperation  with  the  various  States  authorized  by  the  Weeks 
law,  for  the  protecting  against  fire  of  headwaters  of  navigable 
streams. 

The  grazing  of  live  stock  has  much  the  same  effect  in  removing 
the  protective  covering  and  packing  the  ground  hard.  Cattle  and 
horses  browse  off  the  tender  young  seedlings  and  tramp  down  the 
upper  soil  layers.  Sheep  and  goats  are  very  destructive  to  young 
seedlings,  particularly  when  closely  herded.  Hogs  feed  upon  most 
kinds  of  acorns  and  nuts,  although  by  rooting  up  the  leaf  litter  they 
sometimes  favorably  expose  the  mineral  soil  for  the  quick  germina- 
tion of  tree  seeds.  Hogs  are  very  destructive  to  the  seed  or  mast  of 
the  long-leaf  pine,  and  the  young  seedlings  are  killed  in  large  num- 
bers by  animals  stripping  off  the  thick,  sweet,  spongy  bark  from  the 
roots. 

Damage  by  insects:  Leaf  and  inner  bark-eating,  twig-cutting, 
bark  and  woodboring  insects.  Methods  of  checking  spread  of  insect 
infestation  by  right  methods  of  cutting. 

Fungi  in  forest  trees  as  a  source  of  the  dying  and  injury  of  many 
trees.  Some  trees  more  immune  than  others.  Importance  of  keeping 
woods  in  a  healthy  growing  condition  and  rightly  cut  in  order  to 
combat  the  spread  of  fungus  diseases. 


22        DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


PREVENT 
FOREST  FIRES 

Start  camp  fires  only  in  safe 
places  and  extinguish  them 
completely  before  leaving. 
Put  out  any  fire  discovered 
or  report  it  to  the  nearest 
Forest  Officer.  The  Laws 
provide  heavy  penalties  for 
wilful  or  careless  setting  of 
forest  fires.  A  reward  will  be 
paid  for  information  leading 
to  conviction  of  offenders. 


Form  986 


FIG.  12. — One  of  the  fire   signs  posted  widely  in  the  National   Forests. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON   HOME   WOODLANDS.  23 

Practical  exercises. — What  damages  to  woodlands  occur  in  the 
district?  What  forest  protection  in  use  in  this  locality?  Do  you 
find  any  disease  or  insect  attacking  any  special  group  of  trees  ?  Are 
farm  animals  allowed  to  graze  in  the  farm  woodlands?  If  so,  what 
damages  do  you  notice? 

Lesson  IX.    IMPROVING  THE  HOME  FOREST  BY  CUTTING. 

Problem. — To  study  how  to  improve  the  home  forest  by  proper 
cutting. 

Sources  of  information. — Farmers'  Bulletins  Til,  1071,  and  1117 ; 
Forestry  Bulletins  92  and  96 ;  Department  Bulletins  11,  13,  139,  and 
308 ;  Forestry  Misc.  R-3 ;  State  Foresters'  publications. 

Illustrative  material.— Charts  or  illustrations  showing  results  of 
overcrowding  and  of  proper  thinning  out  of  forest  trees.  Pictures 
showing  results  of  careless  felling  of  trees.  If  possible,  visit  a  forest 
where  these  results  can  be  actually  shown  by  observing  rings  on 
stumps  or  cutting  into  trees  that  have  been  several  years  previously 
thinned.  In  an  even-aged  group,  note  different  sizes  of  trees  of  same 
age  as  result  of  differences  in  growing  space. 

Topics  for  study. — Cutting  the  individual  tree  rightly;  why  as 
little  as  possible  of  the  tree's  stump  and  top  should  be  left  in  the 
woods;  careful  felling  of  trees.  What  is  liable  to  happen  to  trees 
injured  by  another  falling? 

Thinning  out  overcrowded  stands  of  forest  trees.  How  fewer  and 
fewer  trees  can  grow  on  an  acre  as  the  trees  increase  in  size.  Avail- 
able light  supply  for  growth.  Purpose  of  thinning  to  utilize  tim- 
ber that  would  otherwise  die  and  go  to  waste.  Also  to  stimulate 
the  remaining  trees  to  increased  growth,  which  means  increased 
value. 

Improve  the  woods  by  proper  cutting,  taking  out  (1)  the  mature, 
(2)  broken,  crooked,  diseased  trees,  and  (3)  the  slow-growing  and  less 
valuable  species  of  trees.  Most  woodlands  have  many  such  trees 
crowding  out  young,  promising. trees  of  the  better  kinds.  Making 
woodlands  yield  a  profit  on  the  investment,  increasing  farm  income 
and  the  selling  value  of  the  farm. 

Practical  exercises. — The  facts  taught  in  this  lesson  should  be  veri- 
fied by  actual  observation  in  trips  to  forests.  Study  first  hand  the 
results  mentioned  in  the  lesson.  A  good  project  would  be  the  im- 
provement of  a  forest  plat  by  proper  thinning,  including  the  re- 
moval of  diseased,  defective,  overcrowded,  and  dead  trees,  and  un- 
desirable species. 

Correlations. — The  classiin  drawing  may  construct  the  charts  men- 
tioned under  "  Illustrative  material."  They  should  also  make  draw- 
ings of  trees  showing  development  under  adverse  conditions  and  of 
others  under  proper  conditions. 


24         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


FIG  13. — The  growth  and  value  of  pine  are  increased  by  repeated  thinning.  The  trees 
removed  can  generally  be  used  or  sold  profitably  for  firewood,  treated  fence  posts,  or 
small  timber.  A,  Before  thinning.  Fifteen  overcrowded  trees  (shaded  trees  to  be 
cut).  B,  The  same  stand  five  years  after  thinning.  Six  larger  and  more  valuable  trees 
(shaded  tree  to  be  cut). 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON   HOME   WOODLANDS.  25 

Language:  A  survey  of  the  general  practice  of  home  forest  im- 
provement of  the  district  with  a  written  report  of  the  same  will 
afford  a  very  good  exercise  in  language. 

Geography:  A  district  or  county  map  locating  the  farm  forest 
areas  and  designating  those  under  improvement.  An  outline  map  of 
the  State  locating  the  farm  forest  areas. 

Lesson  X.    GROWTH  OF  TREES  AND  FORESTS. 

Problem. — To  learn  how  trees  and  forests  grow. 

Sources  of  information. — Farmers'  Bulletins  134,  173,  and  1071; 
Forestry  Bulletin  92 ;  Department  Bulletin  308. 

Illustrative  material. — Potted  seedlings,  pots  or  boxes,  and  seeds 
of  trees.  A  chart  showing  roots,  stem,  and  leaves  of  a  tree.  A  chart, 
or  better,  an  actual  cross  section  of  a  tree  stem  showing  different 
parts  of  the  stem,  such  as  annual  rings,  heartwood,  sapwood,  bark, 
and  cambium.  Leaves  mounted  so  that  their  structure  can  be 
studied.  Branches  showing  bud  and  twig  arrangement.  Drawings 
showing  shapes  of  crowns  of  trees  grown  in  the  open  and  grown  in 
close  stands. 

Topics  for  study. — The  life  of  a  tree  and  why  it  is  necessary  to 
know  something  about  how  trees  live. 

The  leaves,  trunk,  and  roots,  and  function  of  each  in  the  tree's 
existence.  How  the  tree  breathes  and  gets  its  food  from  the  soil 
and  air;  what  travels  upward  and  what  downward  in  the  branches 
and  stems.  Structure  of  the  leaf  and  different  parts  of  the  trunk. 

How  the  branches  lengthen  and  the  tree  trunk  increases  in  size; 
the  location,  color,  and  structure  of  the  living  tissue  or  cambium 
layer.  What  are  annual  rings,  heartwood,  and  sapwood? 

Requirements  for  growth:    Air,  light,  moisture,  and  heat. 

Trees  in  association — a  stand.  Influence  of  trees  upon  each  other. 
Difference,  if  any,  between  shape  of  crowns  of  open-grown  trees  and 
those  growrn  in  close  stands.  Influence  of  different  light  and  soil 
moisture  supply. 

Effect  of  tree  density  (number  of  trees  in  a  given  area)  upon 
growth  of  the  individual  tree.  Natural  dying  out  of  trees  in  close 
stands  with  advancing  age.  Understocked,  well-stocked,  and  over- 
stocked stands  and  the  production  of  (a)  saw  timber,  and  (&)  cord- 
wood  per  acre  under  each  condition. 

Practical  exercises. — Make  the  following  tests  to  show  require- 
ments for  growth.  Place  a  potted  forest  tree  seedling  in  the  dark 
for  a  few  days;  withdraw  moisture  from  one  and  supply  moderate 
amounts  of  moisture  and  excess  moisture  to  other  seedlings;  sub- 
ject plants,  if  possible,  to  different  degrees  of  heat.  Note  results. 
Erect  a  pole  or  1  by  2  inch  timber  strip  close  beside  a  young,  thrifty 


26         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

sapling  pine  or  hardwood.  At  regular  intervals  of  a  week  or  month, 
mark  on  it  the  total  height  of  the  growing  tree.  Keep  a  record  also 
of  the  dates  and  measured  heights. 


B 


FIG.  14. — How  the  tree  trunk  grows.  All  growth  takes  place  in  the  cambium,  lying 
between  the  inner  bark  and  sapwood.  This  is  a  very  thin  layer  of  living  cells  which 
divide  and  subdivide,  forming  on  the  outside  bark  and  on  the  inside  wood  (A).  The 
inner  bark,  or  last  tissue,  is  soft  and  moist.  Its  function  is  to  carry  the  food  prepared 
in  the  leaves  to  all  growing  parts  of  the  tree  (B).  By  a  gradual  change  the  inner 
bark  passes  into  outer  bark,  a  corky  layer  composed  of  dry,  dead  leaves.  This  serves 
to  protect  the  living  stem  against  evaporation  and  mechanical  injury  (C).  The  woody 
growth  during  one  season  is  called  an  annual  ring.  In  the  spring  the  newly  formed 
cells  are  thin-walled  and  spongy,  while  in  midsummer  and  fall  the  walls  of  the  cells 
become  thicker  and  denser.  This  difference  can  be  distinguished  in  many  kinds  of 
trees  as  light  colored  spring  wood  and  darker  colored  summer  wood.  Sapwood  (D)  is 
the  lighter  colored  band  of  wood  beneath  the  bark,  often  from  1  to  2  inches  thick.  It 
carries  the  sap  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves.  Heartwood  (E)  is  .formed  by  a  gradual 
change  in  the  sapwood  by  which  it  becomes  darker,  heavier,  and  often  more  lasting. 
Most  of  the  trees,  but  not  all,  form  heartwood.  Pith  is  the  soft  tissue  on  the  inner- 
most part  of  the  stem,  about  which  the  first  woody  growth  takes  place  in  the  newly 
formed  twig  (F).  From  it  extend  the  pith  rays  (G).  These  flat  bands  of  the  same 
tissue  connect  the  pith  with  the  various  layers  of  wood  and  the  bark.  They  transfer 
and  store  up  food. 

Lesson  XL     FOREST  REPRODUCTION. 

Problem. — To  learn  how  trees  reproduce  themselves. 
Sources  of  information. — Farmers'  Bulletins  134,  173,  423,  Til, 
788,  1071,  and  1123 ;  Forestry  Bulletins  45,  121,  and  244.    Forestry 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON    HOME   WOODLANDS. 


27 


Circulars  45,  81,  99,  and  208 ;  Department  Bulletin  153 ;  Department 
Circular  8. 

Illustrative  material. — Make  a  collection  of  seed  specimens  of  the 
classes  indicated  under  "  Topics  for  study."  Either  mount  these  seeds 
on  cardboard  or  put  them  in  wide-mouth  bottles.  Clip  pictures  of 
young  forest  growth. 

Topics  for  study'. — Seeds :  The  various  devices  of  nature  for  dis- 
persing the  seed  widely.  Tree  fruits  with  (a)  wings,  plumes,  etc., 
(b)  pulpy  fruit  with  bony  seeds  sought  by  birds,  (c)  rich  nut 
kernels  liked  by  rodents  and  birds,  and  often  buried  or  otherwise 


FIG.  15. — Effect  of  light  supply  upon  the  form  and  commercial  value  of  trees.  A,  Elm 
which  grew  up  among  other  trees  of  the  same  height  but  since  cut  down.  Clear  trunks 
make  valuable  lumber.  B,  This  elm  grow  standing  in  the  open.  Trees  with  short 
limby  trunks  are  useful  chiefly  as  firewood. 

stored  away,  (d)  light  seeds  which  float  or  roll  along  the  bottom  of 
streams.  Species  of  trees  whose  seeds  are  (a)  carried  by  wind,  (6) 
water,  or  by  (c)  birds  and  animals.  (Fig.  16.) 

Sprouts :  Different  species  of  trees  which  reproduce  themselves  by 
means  of  sprouts  from  stumps.  From  what  part  or  parts  of  the 
stump  do  sprouts  arise?  Species  which  sprout  from  surface  or  lat- 
eral roots.  Influence  of  the  season  of  the  year  when  cutting  is  done 
upon  the  vigor  and  growth  of  sprouts.  Influence  of  age  of  parent 
tree  upon  success  of  sprouting. 

Natural  forest  reproduction :  Young  growth.  (Fig.  17.)  Condi- 
tions under  which  young  growth  starts  in  woodlands.  A  forest 


28         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEFT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


BY    WIND 


Sycamore 

FIG.  16. — How  the  forest  travels:  By  wind. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS  ON   HOME   WOODLANDS. 


29 


BY  ANIMALS 


Wa/nuf 


BY  BIRDS 


Ctier/y 


BY  WATER 

Cypress 

7upe/o  gum. 

Goffonwooct 

W///OW5 

Afap/es 
efc 


FIG.  16. — How  the  forest  travels  :  By  animals ;  by  birds ;  by  water. 


30        DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

without  young  growth  is  like  a  community  without  children — it  will 
die  out.  Need  for  large  numbers  of  young  trees  for  perpetuation  of 
the  forest.  Competition  and  shading  out  of  the  weaker  seedlings 
and  saplings. 

How  the  forest  travels:  (a)  By  wind;  (b)  by  animals,  birds,  and 
water.  (Fig.  16.) 

Age  groups  of  young  growth:  (a)  Seedling,  (&)  small  sapling, 
_(<?)  large  sapling,  (d)  small  pole. 


FIG.  17. — Woods  with  plenty  of  young  growth  coming  on  to  take  the  place  of  the  larger 

trees  when   cut. 

Starting  a  young  forest  by  direct  seeding  or  transplanting  nur- 
sery grown  seedlings.  Sowing  the  seed  direct  where  the  trees  are 
wanted.  Kinds  of  trees  started  this  way:  Usually  the  species  diffi- 
cult to  transplant  on  account  of  large,  deep  taproots,  such  as  hick- 
ories, walnuts,  some  of  the  oaks,  longleaf  and  some  other  pines. 
Collecting  the  seed.  Storing  the  seed  over  winter.  Sections  of  the 
country  (north)  where  seed  sowing  is  best  done  in  the  spring  and 
(south)  where  it  may  also  be  done  in  the  fall  or  early  winter.  Prep- 
aration of  the  soil  and  method  of  planting  seed  of  different  kinds. 
Care  of  growing  seedlings. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON    HOME   WOODLANDS. 


31 


Planting  seedlings  grown  in  nursery  beds.  Preparation  of  nur- 
sery beds  and  sowing  of  seeds.  Kinds  of  trees  commonly  raised  in 
nursery  beds.  Age  of  seedlings  fit  for  planting.  Need  for  trans- 
planting seedlings  in  nursery  prior  to  planting  out  in  the  woods  or 
fields.  Season  of  year  for  successful  planting  and  method  of  plant- 
ing. Sources  of  injury  or  loss,  and  means  of  combating.  (Fig.  18.) 

Regions  where  forest  plantations  are  needed  and  commonly  started. 
Purposes  for  which  plantations  are  set  out.  Kinds  of  trees  profit- 
able in  plantations.  Pure  and  mixed  plantations,  and  advantages 
of  each. 


FIG.  18. — Forest  plantations  are  made  with  small  seedlings  and  no  later  watering  or 
cultivation  are  necessary.     Fire  and  grazing  stock  must  be  excluded. 

Planting  steep  slopes  and  eroding  soils  with  forest  trees  to  check 
soil  wastage  and  land  destruction.  Kinds  of  trees  suitable  for  tak- 
ing hold  quickly  and  multipling  on  such  dry  banks. 

Filling  up  large  openings  in  the  woods  and  improving  existing 
woodlands  by  planting  desirable  species  of  trees. 

Utilizing  poor  soils  and  so-called  waste  places  about  the  farm  by 
planting  quick-growing,  useful  kinds  of  trees :  Black  locust  for  fence 
posts,  pine  and  other  species  for  use  as  treated  fence  posts. 

Trees  about  the  farm  and  farmstead  for  shade,  nut  production, 
and  ornamental  purposes. 


32         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
Lesson  XII.    WOODLANDS  AND  FARM  MANAGEMENJ. 

Problem. — How  may  the  home  forest  be  best  managed  to  make  it 
more  valuable,  to  increase  the  farm  income,  and  to  make  the  farm 
more  desirable. 

Sources  of  Information. — Farmers'  Bulletins  635,  711,  715,  745, 
1071,  and  1117;  Department  Bulletin  481." 

Topics  for  study. — Review  importance  and  value  of  woodlands  to 
the  farm.  Thfe  uses  of  timber  on  the  farm,  and  importance  of  hav- 
ing home-grown  timber  close  at  hand. 

Increasing  the  farm  income  by  marketing  the  choice  grades  of 
logs  and  other  rough  wood  products  not  needed  for  home  use. 

Woodlands  making  farms  more  desirable  and  saleable  than  simi- 
lar farms  without  timber.  The  actual  value  of  the  timber  and  the 
additional  indirect  or  aesthetic  value  because  of  attractiveness,  a 
place  for  the  owner  to  recreate  in,  or  a  cover  for  small  game.  People 
have  an  inherent  fondness  for  the  woods.  How  the  occurrence  of 
woods  makes  the  community  a  better  one  in  which  to  live. 

Increasing  or  reducing  the  area  in  woods  to  the  point  of  right  pro- 
portion of  cropland,  pastureland,  and  woodland.  The  soundness  of 
the  farm  policy  of  having  permanent  woodland  on  the  farm.  Proper 
area  in  permanent  woodland.  Kind  of  soil,  topography,  and  amount 
of  forest  land  in  the  locality,  and  their  effect  in  determininig  the 
area  of  permanent  woodland. 

Waste  or  idle  land,  poor  soils,  steep  slopes,  wastes  and  gullies, 
rocky  and  wet  lands  (fig.  19)  made  profitable  by  growing  timber. 

Handling  woodlands  so  as  to  keep  them  at  the  highest  point  of  pro- 
duction. Overcutting  and  its  ill  effect  upon  the  productive  power 
of  the  forest.  Owners  to  be  satisfied  with  a  permanent  revenue  from 
the  woodland.  Difference  between  a  mine  and  a  forest  in  respect  to 
their  producing  power. 

Woodlands  as  a  source  of  permanent  revenue  on  the  farm.  Dif- 
ferences between  a  timber  tract  containing  thrifty  young  trees  and 
one  with  only  scattered  old  trees  and  much  sod  and  shrubs.  The 
forest  capital — the  stock  of  growing  trees — must  not  be  too  heavily 
cut.  Because  of  the  desire  for  ready  money,  there  is  constant  danger 
of  this  happening.  The  apparent  returns  may  be  increased  for  a 
few  years,  while  the  productive  capacity  of  the  forest  is  being  re- 
duced below  the  minimum  limit.  This  point,  below  which  the  total 
amount  of  growing  timber  should  not  be  allowed  to  fall,  is  about  one- 
half  the  contents  of  a  fully  stocked  stand  at  maturity.  If  the  latter, 
for  example,  is  40  cords  per  acre,  then  the  woods  should  never  con- 
tain less  than  about  20  cords  per  acre  as  the  growing  stock  or  basis 
necessary  to  secure  the  maximum  production.  This  does  not  apply 
to  mixed  hardwoods  cut  clean  and  renewed  by  sprouting. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS  ON   HOME   WOODLANDS. 


33 


Effect  of  the  general  rise  in  the  value  of  all  timber  products  in  its 
relation  upon  desirability  of  holding  woodlands  and  keeping  them 
productive.  How  a  forest  tract  may  supply  timber  yearly  for  many 
years  and  meanwhile  increase  in  value  and  be  worth  more  at  the  end 
of  a  long  period. 

Growing  timber  as  a  bank  account  upon  which  the  owners  may  draw 
repeatedly  without  diminishing  the  capital.  A  good  form  of  prop- 
erty to  be  handed  down  to  the  children  as  an  inheritance. 

Keeping  fire  out  of  the  woods,  cutting  the  trees  carefully,  and  find- 
ing the  best  markets  for  excess  timber  products  not  needed  on  the 
farm  are  indications  of  sound  judgment  in  farm  management. 

Practical  exercises. — A  survey  of  the  methods  of  caring  for  the 
farm  forest  should  be  made.  This  Survey  should  inquire  into 
the  general  practice  of  the  district  in  the  care  of  the  forest,  the  forest 
products  marketed,  the  utilization  of  waste  or  idle  lands  for  forest 
tracts,  the  practice  of  replanting  forest  plats,  and  the  general  relation 
of  the  acreage  in  forest  to  the  crop  and  pasture  acreage.  From 
this  survey  many  facts  will  be  obtained  for  class  discussion  in  forest 
management.  A  field  trip  into  some  of  the  farm  woodlands  of  the 
district  is  desirable  where  the  studies  made  first-hand  should  include 
the  farm  practice  on  the  care  of  the  forest. 


Rough    Ridge 
(Wooded) 


FIG.  19. — Rough,  steep,  and  poor  lands  and  inaccessible  parts  of  the  farm  increasing 
farm  income  by  growing  trees  in  permanent  woodlands. 


SUPPLEMENT. 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRI- 
CULTURE RELATING  TO   FORESTRY   ON   FARM  WOODLANDS. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  REQUESTING  THESE  PUBLICATIONS. 

(a)  For  publications  available  for  free  distribution,  application  should  be 
made  to  the  Chief  of  Publications,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  (?>)  For  publications  for  sale,  application  should  be  made  to  the 
Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washingon,  D.  C., 
inclosing  the  money  in  the  form  of  cash  or  money  order  (stamps  not  accepted). 

The  following  lists  are  subject  to  frequent  changes  as  available  supplies 
become  exhausted  and  new  publications  are  added. 

FARMERS'  BULLETINS  AVAILABLE  FOR  FREE  DISTRIBUTION. 

173.  Primer  of  Forestry,  Part  I. 

358.  Primer  of  Forestry,  Part  II. 

468.  Forestry  in  Nature  Study. 

516.  Production  of  Maple  Sugar  and  Sirup. 

622.  Basket  Willow  Culture. 

635.  What  the  Farm  Contributes  Directly  to  the  Farmer's  Living. 

711.  Care  and  Improvement  of  Farm  Woods. 

715.  Measuring  and  Marketing  Farm  Timber. 

742.  The  White  Pine  Blister  Rust. 

744.  Preservative  Treatment  of  Farm   Timbers. 

745.  Waste  Land  and  Wasted  Land  on  Farms. 
788.  The  Windbreak  as  a  Farm  Asset 

888.  Advice  to  Forest  Planters  in  the  Plains  Region. 
1023.  Machinery  for  Cutting  Firewood. 

1071.  Making  Woodlands  Profitable  in  the  Southern  States. 
1100.  Cooperative  Marketing  of  Woodland  Products. 
1117.  Forestry  and  Farm  Income. 
1123.  Growing  and  Planting  Hardwood  Seedlings  on  the  Farm. 

OTHER  DEPARTMENT   PUBLICATIONS   AVAILABLE    FOR   FREE    DISTRIBUTION. 

Forestry  Bulletin  111,  Lightning  in  Relation  to  Forest  Fires. 

Forestry  Bulletin  114,  Forestry  Conditions  in  Louisiana. 

Department  Bulletin  55,  The  Balsam  Fir. 

Department  Bulletin  152,  The  Eastern  Hemlock. 

Department  Bulletin  153,  Forest  Planting  in  the  Eastern  United  States. 

Department  Bulletin  481,  Status  and  Value  of  Farm  Woodlots  in  the  Eastern 

United   States. 

Department  Bulletin  544,  The  Red  Spruce :  Its  Growth  and  Management. 
Department  Bulletin  605,  Lumber  Used  in  the  Manufacture  of  Wooden  Products. 
Department  Bulletin  683,  Utilization  of  Elm. 
Department  Bulletin  718,   Small   Sawmills. 
Department  Bulletin  753,  Use  of  Wood  for  Fuel. 
34 


FORESTRY   LESSONS   ON    HOME    WOODLANDS.  35 

Department  Bulletin  787,  Protection  from  the  Locust  Borer. 
Department  Circular  8,  Arbor  Day. 
Department  Circular  04,  How  Lumber  is  Graded. 

Yearbook  Separate  548,  Fire  Prevention  and  Control  on  the  National  Forests, 
Yearbook  Separate  688,  Farms,  Forests,  and  Erosion. 
Yearbook  Separate  779,  Farm  Woodlands  and  the  War. 
Department  Misc.  F-I,  Government  Forest  Work  (booklet). 
Forestry  Circular  205,  Forest  Fire  Protection  Under  Weeks  Law  in  Cooperation 
with  the   States. 

FOR  SALE  BY  THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  DOCUMENTS. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  134,  Tree  Planting  for  Rural  School  Grounds.    Price,  5  cents. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  423,  Forest  Nurseries  for  Schools.    Price,  5  cents. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  582,  Uses  for  Chestnut  Timber  Killer  by  the  Bark  Disease. 

Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Bulletin  17,  Check  List  of  the  Forest  Trees  of  the  United  States, 

Price,  15  cents. 

Forestry  Bulletin  36,  The  Woodman's  Handbook.     Price,  25  cents. 
Forestry  Bulletin  40,  New  Method  of  Turpentine  Orcharding.     Price,  20  cents. 
Forestry  Bulletin  45,  Planting  of  White  Pine  in  New  England.     Price,  20  cents. 
Forestry  Bulletin  58,  The  Red  Gum.     Price,  15  cents. 

Forestry  Bulletin  61,  Terms  Used  in  Forestry  and  Logging.     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Bulletin  66,  Forestry  Belts  of  Western  Kansas  and  Nebraska.     Price, 

10  cents. 

Forestry  Bulletin  80,  The  Commercial  Hickories.     Price,  15  cents. 
Forestry  Bulletin  90,  Relation  of  Light  Chipping  to  the  Commercial  Yield  of 

Naval  Stores.     Price,  10  cents. 

Forestry  Bulletin  92,  Light  in  Relation  to  Tree  Growth.     Price,  10  cents. 
Forestry   Bulletin  96,   Second   Growth   Hardwoods   in   Connecticut.     Price,  15 

cents. 
Forestry   Bulletin  99,  Uses  of  Commercial   Woods  of   United    States:    Pines. 

Price,  15  cents. 
Forestry   Bulletin   102   Identification  of  the  Important   North  American   Oak 

Woods.     Price,  10  cents. 

Forestry  Bulletin  104,  Principles  of  Drying  Lumber.     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Bulletin  117,  Forest  Fires.     Price,  10  cents. 
Forestry  Bulletin  121,  Forestation  of  the  Sand  Hills  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas. 

Price,  10  cents. 

Forestry  Circular  45,  Forest  Planting  in  Eastern  Nebraska.    Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  62,  Shagbark  Hickory  (Planting  Leaflet).     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  63,  Basswood   (Planting  Leaflet).     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  65,  Norway  Spruce   (Planting  Leaflet).     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  66,  White  Elm  (Planting  Leaflet).     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  75,  Hackberry  (Planting  Leaflet).     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  77,  Cottonwood  (Planting  Leaflet).    Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  81,  Forest  Planting  in  Illinois.     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  88,  Black  Walnut  (Planting  Leaflet).     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  89,  Tamarack  (Planting  Leaflet).     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  90,  Osage  Orange  (Planting  Leaflet).     Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  92,  Green  Ash  (Planting  Leaflet).    Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  99,  Suggestions  for  Forest  Plainting  on  the  Semiarid  Plains. 

Price,  5  cents. 


36         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Forestry  Circular  118,  Management  of  Second  Growth  in  the  Southern  Appala- 
chians.    Price,  5  cents. 
Forestry  Circular  208,  Extracting  and  Cleaning  Forest  Tree  Seed.     Price,  5 

cents. 
Department  Bulletin  11,  Forest  Management  of  Loblolly  Pine   in   Delaware, 

Maryland,  and  Virginia.     Price,  15  cents. 
Department  Bulletin   12,   Uses  of  Commercial  Woods  of  the  United   States: 

Beech,  Birches,  Maples.     Price,  10  cents. 
Department   Bulletin   13,   White   Pine   Under   Forest   Management.     Price,   15 

cents. 

Department  Bulletin  139,  Norway  Pine  in  the  Lake  States.     Price,  10  cents. 
Department  Bulletin  212,  Observations  on  the  Pathology  of  the  Jack  Pine. 

Price,  5  cents. 
Department  Bulletin  247,  A  Disease  of  Pines  Caused  by  Cronartium  Pyriforme. 

Price,  5  cents. 

Department  Bulletin  272,  The  Southern  Cypress.     Price,  20  cents. 
Department  Bulletin  285,  The  Northern  Hardwood  Forest.     Price,  20  cents. 
Department  Bulletin  299,  The  Ashes:  Their  Characteristics  and  Management. 

Price,  25  cents. 
Department  Bulletin  308,  Shortleaf  Pine :  Its  Economic  Importance  and  Forest 

Management.     Price,  15  cents. 
Department  Bulletin  316,  Willows:  Their  Growth,  Use  and  Importance.    Price, 

15  cents. 
Department  Bulletin  638,   Forestry  and  Community   Development.    Price,  10 

cents. 

STATE  FORESTRY  DEPARTMENTS. 

Thirty-three  States  have  Departments  of  Forestry,  all  of  which  publish  more 
or  less  material  on  varied  phases  of  the  subject.  Applications  should  be  ad- 
dressed to  the  State  Foresters  at  the  following  places: 

Alabama,  State  Commission  of  Forestry,  Montgomery. 

California,  State  Board  of  Forestry,  Sacramento. 

Colorado,  State  Board  of  Forestry,  Fort  Collins. 

Connecticut,  State  Forester  (under  Agricultural  Experiment  Station),  New 
Haven. 

Idaho,  Fire  Warden  System  (under  State  Board  of  Land  Commissioners), 
Boise. 

Illinois,  State  Forester,  Urbana. 

Indiana,  State  Board  of  Forestry,  Indianapolis. 

Iowa,  State  Forestry  Commissioner,  Des  Moines. 

Kansas,  State  Agricultural  College,  Manhattan. 

Kentucky,  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Frankfort. 

Louisiana,  Department  of  Conservation,  New  Orleans. 

Maine,  Forest  Commissioner,  Augusta. 

Maryland,  State  Board  of  Forestry,  Baltimore. 

Massachusetts,  State  Forester,  Boston. 

Michigan,  Public  Domain  Commission,  Iloscotnmon., 

Minnesota,  State  Forestry  Board,  St.  Paul. 

Montana,  State  Board  of  Land  Commissioners,  Helena. 

New  Jersey,  Department  of  Conservation  and  Development,  Trenton. 

New  York,  Division  of  Lands  and  Forests,  Albany. 

North  Carolina,  Geological  and  Economic  Survey,  Chapel  Hill. 

Ohio,  Department  of  Forestry,  Wooster. 


FORESTRY   LESSONS   ON    HOME    WOODLANDS. 

Oregon,  State  Board  of  Forestry,  Salem. 

Pennsylvania,  Department  of  Forestry,  Harrisburg. 

Rhode  Island,  Commissioner  of  Forestry,  Chepachet. 

South  Dakota,  Forest  Supervisor,  Custer. 

Tennessee,  State  Geological  Survey,  Nashville. 

Texas,  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  College  Station. 

Vermont,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Montpelier. 

Virginia,  State  Forester,  University. 

Washington,  State  Board  of  Forest  Commissioners,  Olympia. 

West  Virginia,  Forest,  Game,  and  Fish  Department,  Philippi. 

Wisconsin,  State  Conservation  Commission,  Madison. 

DOYLE  RULE  FOR  SCALING  LOGS.1 


37 


Diameter  of  log 
(small  end, 
inside  bark). 

LENGTH  OF  LOO  IN  FEET. 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18    19 

20 

HOARD  FEET. 

Inches. 
6 

1 

3 
6 
9 
13 

18 
24 
30 
37 
45 

54 
63 
73 

84 
96 

108 
121 
135 
150 
165 

181 
198 
216 
234 
253 

273 
291 
315 
337 
360 

384 
408 
433 
459 
486 

2 
4 
7 
11 
16 

21 
28 
35 
44 
53 

63 

74 
86 
98 
112 

126 
142 
158 
175 
193 

212 
231 
252 
273 
296 

319 
343 
368 
394 
420 

448 
476 
506 
536 
567 

2 
4 
8 
12 

18 

24 
32 
40 
50 
60 

72 
84 
98 
112 
128 

144 
162 
180 
200 
220 

242 
264 
288 
312 
338 

364 
392 
420 
450 

480 

512 
544 

578 
612 
648 

2 
5 
9 
14 
20 

28 
36 
46 

56 

68 

81 
95 
110 
127 
144 

163 
182 
203 
225 
248 

272 

298 
324 
352 
380 

^410 
441 
473 
506 
541 

576 
613 
650 

689 
729 

2 
5 
10 
16 

22 

31 
40 
51 
62 
76 

90 
106 
122 
141 
160 

181 
202 
226 
250 
276 

302 
331 
360 
391 
422 

456 
490 
526 
562 
601 

640 
681 

722 
766 
810 

3 

6 
11 
17 
25 

34 
44 
56 
69 
83 

99 
116 
135 
155 
176 

199 
223 
248 
275 
303 

333 
364 
396 
430 
465 

501 

539 
578 
619 
661 

704 
749 
795 
842 
891 

3 

7 
12 

19 

27 

37 
48 
61 
75 
91 

108 
127 
147 
169 
192 

217 
243 
271 
300 
331 

363 
397 
432 
469 
507 

547 
588 
631 
675 
721 

768 
817 
867 
919 
972 

3 
8 
13 
20 

29 

40 
52 
66 
81 
98 

117 
137 
159 
183 
208 

235 
263 
293 
325 
358 

393 
430 
468 
508 
549 

592 
637 
683 
731 

781 

832 

885 
939 
995 
1,053 

3 

8 
14 
22 
31 

43 
56 
71 

87 
106 

135 
148 
171 

197 
224 

253 
283 
316 
350 
386 

423 
463 
504 
547 
591 

638 
686 
736 
787 
841 

896 
953 
1.011 
1,072 
1,134 

4 

9 
15 
23 
34 

46 
60 
76 
94 
113 

144 
158 
184 
211 
240 

271 
304 
338 
375 
413 

454 
496 
540 
586 
344 

683 
735 

788 
844 
901 

960 
1,021 
1,084 
1,148 
1,215 

4 
9 
16 
25 
36 

49 
64 
81 
100 
121 

144 
169 
196 
225 
256 

289 
324 
361 
400 
441 

4X4 
529 
576 
625 
676 

729 
784 
841 
900 
961 

1,024 
1,089 
1,  156 
1,225 
1,296 

4 
10 

17 
27 
38 

52 
68 
86 
106 
129 

162 
180 
208 
239 
272 

307 
344 
384 
425 
469 

514 
562 
612 
664 

718 

775 
833 
894 
956 
1,021 

1,088 
1,157 
1,228 
1,302 
1,377 

4" 

10 
18 

28 
40 

55 
72 
91 
112 
136 

162 
190 
220 
253 
288 

325 
364 
406 
450 
496 

544 
595 
648 
702 
760 

820 
882 
946 
,012 
,081 

.152 
,225 
,300 
,378 
,458 

5 
11 
19 
30 
43 

58 
76 
96 
119 
144 

171 
201 
233 
267 
304 

343 
385 
429 
475 
524 

575 
628 
684 
742 
803 

866 
931 
999 
1,069 
1,141 

1,216 
1,293 
1,373 
1,455 
1,539 

5 
11 
20 
31 

45 

61 
80 
101 
125 
151 

180 
211 
245 
281 
320 

361 
405 
451 
500 
551 

605 
661 
720 

781 
845 

911 
980 
1,051 
1,125 
1,201 

1,280 
1,361 
1,445 
1,531 
1.620 

7  

8. 

9 

10... 

11... 

12. 

13  

14. 

15 

16... 
17... 

18 

19  

20. 

21. 

22 

23... 

24 

25... 

26... 

27 

28 

29. 

30 

31 

32  

33 

34  

35. 

36... 

37 

38  

39 

40 

To  find  the  number  of  board  feet  in  a  log  without  using  the  above  table 
according  to  the  Doyle  rule :  Deduct  4  inches  from  the  diameter  of  the  smaller 
end,  square  one-fourth  the  remainder,  and  multiply  the  product  by  the  length 
in  feet. 

1  For  information  regarding  the  advisability  of  using  different  log  scales  see  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  715. 


38         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
KEY  TO  COMMON  KINDS  OF  TREES.1 

The  following  key  is  intended  only  as  a  guide  in  the  identification  of  the 
more  common  kinds  of  trees.  It  is  based  on  prominent,  distinctive  character- 
istics which  can  readily  be  observed  by  those  who  have  no  special  training  in 
botany.  Most  of  the  terms  used  require  no  explanation. 

To  use  the  key,  decide  first,  by  an  examination  of  the  leaf,  in  which  of  the 
following  seven  sections  your  tree  belongs ;  then  turn  to  that  section,  and  from 
the  descriptions  there  given  determine  what  kind  of  tree  it  is. 

Section. 

Trees  with  needles  or  scale-like  leaves,  mostly  evergreens,  bearing  cones_       I 
Trees  with  broad  leaves: 
Leaves  simple — 

Alternately  attached  to  twigs — 

With  toothed  edges II 

Edges  neither  toothed  nor  notched * III 

Opposite  on  twigs — 

With  toothed  edges _ IV 

Edges  neither  toothed  nor  notched V 

Leaves  compound — 

Alternately  attached  to  twigs ^ VI 

Opposite  on  twigs VII 

THE   CONIFEROUS-  TREES. 

I.  TREES   WITH   NEEDLES  OB   SCALE-LIKE   LEAVES,   MOSTLY   EVERGREEN,   BEARING 

CONES. 
A.  Leaves  needle-shaped: 

(1)  Leaves  clustered — 

(a)  Leaves  long,  from  1  to  18  inches,  2  to  5  in  a  cluster.  Cones 
large,  with  many  thick,  woody  scales (Pinus)  Pine. 

(&)  Leaves  short  (less  than  2  inches  long)  in  brush-like  clus- 
ters of  12  to  40 ;  falling  off  in  winter.  Cones  very  small, 
with  thin  scales;  remaining  on  tree  for  one  or  more 
seasons (Larix)  Larch.3 

(2)  Leaves  single — 

(a)  Leaves  scattered  around  twigs;  failing  off  when  dry  or 
dead.  Cones  elongated,  with  thin  scales.  Twigs  rough- 
ened by  leaf-scars. 

(a?)  Leaves   stiff,   often   sharp-pointed   and   more   or 

less  four-sided (Picea)   Spruce. 

(y)  Leaves  soft,  flat,  rounded,  or  notched  at  ends,  the 
bases    abruptly     contracted     into    thread-like 

stems (Tsuga)   Hemlock. 

(&)  Leaves  in  two  distinct  rows,  one  on  each  side  of  the  twig; 
falling  off  in  late  autumn  or  winter.  Cones  small, 
ball-like— (Taxodium)  Bald  cypress. 

1  This   key   and   the   following   tree  descriptions   are   by    William   H.    Lamb,    Scientific 
Assistant  in  Dendrology,  Forest  Service. 

2  Cone-bearing. 

8  The  larches  are  peculiar  in  having  single,  scattered  leaves  on  the  new  or  terminal 
twigs  produced  each  season.  These  should  not  be  mistaken  for  the  "  single "  leaves 
borne  throughout  by  other  kinds  of  evergreens. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON   HOME   WOODLANDS.  39 

A.  Leaves  needle-shaped — Continued. 

(2)  Leaves  single — Continued. 

(c)  Leaves  often  in  two  rows  on  the  tops  and  sides  of  the 
twigs ;  leaves  on  lower  branches  mostly  flat,  those  on 
upper  branches  stouter.  Cones  long,  erect,  forming 
only  on  upper  side  of  topmost  branches;  the  scales 
falling  off  in  autumn,  leaving  spike-like  central  axes 
of  the  cones  attached (Abies)  Fir. 

B.  Leaves  scale-like,  pointed,  overlapping  closely  on  flat  or  four-sided  twigs. 

(1)  Twigs    four-sided.      Cones    round    or    ball-like,    with    small,    thick 

scales;  seed  with  very  narrow,  hard  wings (Cupressus)  Cypress. 

(2)  Twigs  flattened. 

(a)  Cones  elongated,  with  only  a  few  thin  scales;  bent  back 

on  branches (Thuja)  Arborvitse. 

( & )  Cones  round,  very  small,  berry-like  writh  thin  scales ;  seeds 
with  a  broad,  thin  wing  on  two  sides. 

(Chamsecyparis)  Cedar. 

(c)  Cones  berry-like  (showing  no  separation  into  scaly  parts), 
Leaves  either  short,  scale-like,  and  sharp-jointed,  or 
much  longer,  needle-like,  standing  out  loosely,  and  at- 
tached in  pairs  or  in  threes  on  the  twigs. 

(Juniperus)    Juniper. 
THE  BROADLEAF  TREES. 

II.  LEAVES   SIMPLE,  ALTERNATE,   WITH  TOOTHED  EDGES. 

A.  Leaves  deeply  lobed,  or  with  large  notches. 

'!)   Leaves  as  wide  as  they  are  long.     Fruit,  a  swinging  ball,  1  to  1£ 
inches  in  diameter. 

(a)  Leaves  with  finely  toothed  margins;  star-shaped,  the  di- 

visions pointed.    Fruit,  bur-like  balls,  from  which,  when 
ripe,  small,  winged  seeds  may  be  shaken.    Bark  rough. 

(Liquidambar)    Sweet  gum. 

(&)  Leaves  with  smooth  margins,  3  to  5  inches  long,  pointed 
lobes,  the  space  between  the  lobes  rounded.  Fruit,  a 
rough  ball,  easily  broken  when  ripe ;  composed  of  closely 
packed,  long,  narrow  seeds  which  have  hair-like  bristles 
at  their  lower  ends  and  are  attached  to  a  bullet-like 
central  part.  Old  bark  of  trunks  and  large  limbs  peel- 
ing off  in  thin,  curled  pieces,  leaving  pale  inner  bark 

showing  in  irregular  patches (Platanus)  Sycamore. 

(2)   Leaves  longer  than  wide. 

(#)  Leaves  large,  with  deep,  round-topped,  or  pointed  lobes. 
Fruit,  an  acorn,  resting  in  a  separable  cup. 

(Quercus)  Oak. 

(b)  Leaves  small,  with  little,  sharp  teeth  on  margin.     Twigs 

bearing  sharp  thorns.    Fruit  small  (like  a  little  apple), 
round,  with  bony  seeds  (hard  core). 

(Cratsegus)    Hawthorn. 

B.  Leaves  one-sided  (one  side  of  leaf  shorter  at  base  than  the  other  side). 

(1)  Leaves  large;  oval,  5  to  10  inches  long,  heart-shaped.  Fruit,  a 
cluster  of  small,  woody  balls  £  to  \  inch  in  diameter,  hang- 
ing from  a  narrow,  leaf-like  blade __(Tilia)  Basswood. 


40         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

B.  Leaves  one-sided — Continued. 

(2)  Leaves  3- veined   at  base,   with  long,   tapering  points,   which  gen- 

erally turn  to  one  side;  edges  smooth,  or  with  small  teeth  of 
uniform  size.     Fruit,  a  small  berry  about  £  inch  in  diameter. 

(Celtis)    Hackberry. 

(3)  Leaves  with  straight  veins,  oval;  edges  double-toothed  (little  teeth 

on  the  larger  ones).     Fruit  fti  clusters,  dry,  flat,   with  papery 
wings  all  around  the  seeds (Ulmns)    Elm. 

C.  Leaves  even  sided  (both  sides  of  leaf  the  same  length). 

(1)  Leaves  oval,  evergreen  thick,  with  short  needle-like  teeth.     Fruit, 

a  bright  red  berry (Ilex)  Holly. 

(2)  Leaves  more  or  less  elongated,  with  one  tooth  at  the  end  of  each 

side  vein. 

(a)  Trees  with  smooth,  bluish-gray  bark,  and  long,  pointed, 
chestnut-brown  buds.  Fruit,  a  small,  three-cornered  nut, 
in  a  spiny  husk  which  splits  open  at  the  top  into  three 
parts (Fagus)  Beech. 

(&)  Trees  with  ridged,  grayish-brown  bark.  Fruit,  a  large, 
round  nut  in  a  thick  husk  covered  with  dense,  needle- 
like  spines;  the  husk  splits  open  from  the  top  into  3  or 
4  divisions (Castanea)  Chestnut. 

(3)  Leaves    very    narrow,     finely    toothed.     Small    branches    slender, 

usually   tough.     Fruit,   a  long  cluster  of  little  pods  filled  with 
"  cotton  " (Salix)  Willow. 

(4)  Leaves  somewhat  triangular  in  outline,  broad  at  base,  large-toothed. 

Buds    of    some    species    coated    with    aromatic    gum.     Branches 
coarse.     Fruit,  a  long  cluster  of  little  pods  filled  with  "  cotton." 

(Populus)  Poplar. 

(5)  Leaves  oval,  pointed,  with  saw-like  teeth. 

(a)   Fruit  like  a  tiny  pine  cone. 

(x)  Bark  of  trunk  and  branches  peeling  off  in  thin 
sheets.  Leaves  double-toothed  (little  teeth  on 
the  larger  ones.)  Fruit  ("cones")  scaly,  fall- 
ing apart  when  ripe ;  seeds  with  gauze-like  wings 

on  two  sides (Betula)  Birch. 

(2/)  Bark  smooth  or  broken,  but  not  peeling.  Leaves 
with  small  teeth.  "  Cones "  hard,  woody,  not 
falling  apart ;  seed  with  narrow  \vings  on  two 

sides ( Alnus)  Alder. 

(&)  Fruit,  a  berry;  fleshy,  edible. 

(#)  Leaves  large,  3-veined  at  base,  often  irregularly, 
deeply  lobed;  containing  milky  juice.  Fruit 
similar  in  appearance  to  a  blackberry. 

(Morus)  Mulberry. 

(y)  Leaves  small  or  medium-sized,  feather-veined; 
containing  green  juice;  fruit  (cherry  or  plum) 
with  one  seed. 

(i)   Seed    ("stone")    flattened.     Fruit    large 

and  short-stemmed (Primus)   Plum. 

(ii)   Seed     round.      Fruit     small     and     long- 
stemmed—  __(Prunns)  Cherry. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS  ON-  HOME  WOODLANDS.  41 

III.  LEAVES  SIMPLE,  ALTERNATE,  EDGE  NEITHER  TOOTHED  NOB  NOTCHED. 

A.  Leaves  with  deep  lobes. 

(1)  Leaves  with  blunt  ends   (appearing  as  if  cut  off),  and  with  two, 

pointed,  side  lobes.  Flowers  tulip-like.  Fruit  cone-like,  pointed, 
upright,  composed  of  long,  thin,  overlapping,  winged  seeds. 
Bruised  twigs  have  a  peppery  odor_(Liriodendron)  Tulip  Poplar. 

(2)  Leaves  with  rounded  ends;  oval,  often  with  a  lobe  on  one  side, 

making  the  leaf  mitten-shaped.  Bruised  twigs  and  inner  bark  of 
trunk  sweet-smelling (Sassafras)  Sassafras. 

B.  Leaves   without  lobes. 

(1)  Bruised  twigs  with  peppery  odor. 

(a)  Leaves  oval  (evergreen  in  one  species)  or  elongated, 
pointed,  large.  Flowers  large,  at  ends  of  branches. 
Fruit  cone-like,  with  a  bright  red  seed  in  each  di- 
vision  (Magnolia)  Magnolia. 

(2)  Bruised  twigs  without  peppery  odor. 

(a)  Leaves  broader  at  top  than  at  the  base,  8  to  12  inches 
long,  with  very  short  leafstalk.  Fruit  fleshy,  elongated, 
3  to  4  inches  long,  with  thick,  brown  skin  when  ripe, 
and  large,  bony,  flat  seeds.  Buds  brown  and  hairy. 

( Asimina) .  Papaw. 
(&)  Leaves  broadest  at  middle,  oval,  3  to  10  inches  long. 

(x)  Fruit  short-stalked,  round,  1  to  If  inches  in 
diameter;  when  ripe  pale  orange  color,  sur- 
rounded at  base  with  old  flower-cup;  very 
bitter,  but  edible  after  frost. 

(Diospyros)  Persimmon. 

(#)  Fruit  long-stalked,  elongated  or  round,  solitary 
or  in  pairs,  with  thin  flesh  and  a  rigid  stone 

or    seed (Nyssa)     Gum. 

(c)  Leaves  rounded  or  heart-shaped,  3  to  5  inches  across. 
Flowers  pea-like,  pink,  appearing  before  the  leaves. 
Fruit,  a  dry  flat  pod,  2£  to  3£  inches  long;  in  dense 
clusters  on  sides  of  branches ;  seeds,  hard,  small,  oblong, 
i  inch  long (Cercis)  Red  bud. 

(3)  Bruised  or  cut  twigs  and  leaves  with  milky  juice. 

(a)  Leaves  with  narrow  points.  Twigs  bearing  thorns.  Fruit, 
a  large,  orange-like,  rough  ball,  4  to  6  inches  in  diame- 
ter  (Toxylon)  Osage  orange. 

IV.  LEAVES  SIMPLE,  OPPOSITE,  \VITH  TOOTHED  EDGES. 

A.  Leaves  with  large  (often  lobe-like)  teeth.  Fruit  in  pairs,  each  part  with  a 
conspicuous,  flat,  very  thin  wing.  Fruit  matures  in  spring  or  in  autumn, 
when  it  becomes  dry  and  yellowish-brown (Acer)  Maple. 

V.  LEAVES  SIMPLE,  OPPOSITE,  EDGES  NEITHER  TOOTHED  NOR  NOTCHED. 

A.  Leaves   very   large,   heart-shaped.     Flowers   showy,   trumpet-like,    in   large 

clusters.     Fruit,   a  long,   cylindrical  pod,   6  to  14  inches  long,   contain- 
ing closely  packed,  flat,  dry  seeds,  with  fringed  wings  at  each  end. 

(Catalpa)  Catalpa. 

B.  Leaves  rather  small,  oval,  tapering  at  base  and  point.     Flowers  conspicuous, 

white   (occasionally  rosy),  appearing  with  the  expanding  leaves.     Fruit, 
a  small  cluster  of  two-seeded  berries,  turning  red  in  autumn. 

(Cornus)  Dogwood. 


42        DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


VI.  LEAVES  COMPOUND,  ALTERNATELY  ATTACHED  TO  TWIGS. 

A.  Leaflets  small,  many,  attached  along  two  sides  of  a  main  stem.     Fruit,  a 

flat,  bean-like,  dry  or  fleshy  pod. 

(1)  Leaflets   with    small,    wavy   teeth.      Pods    flat,    broad,   long,    often 

twisted,  thin-skinned,  with  thick,  cheesy,  sweetish  pulp  about 
seeds.  Trees  with  long,  keen,  branched  thorns. 

(Gleditsia)  Honey  locust. 

(2)  Leaflets  not  toothed. 

(a)  Twigs  with  pairs  of  short,  keen  thorns.  Leaflets  rounded  at 
ends.  Flowers  showy  white,  in  large  clusters.  Pods  small, 
flat"  thin,  dry,  with  small  seeds (Robinia)  Black  locust. 

(7>)  Twigs  thornless.  Leaflets  oval,  pointed.  Flowers  greenish, 
with  violet  odor.  Pods  large,  flat,  thick,  with  jelly-like 
pulp  (poisonous)  around  the  large,  black-brown  seeds. 

(Gymnocladus)  Coffee  tree. 

B.  Leaflets  large.    Fruit,  a  hard-shelled  nut,  with  a  separable  husk. 

(1)  Leaflets  narrow  at  base  becoming  larger  at  outer  end.    But  light- 

colored,  in  a  husk'  which  separates  more  or  less  completely  into 
four  parts  when  ripe (Hicoria)  Hickory. 

(2)  Leaflets  broad  at  base,  becoming  narrower  at  outer  end.    Nut  dark, 

rough,  in  a  fleshy  husk  which  is  inseparable  by  any  natural 
'divisions  and  turns  black  when  old.  Pith  of  twigs  forms  numer- 
ous cross-partitions (Juglans)  Walnut. 

VII.  LEAVES  COMPOUND,  OPPOSITE  ON  TWIGS. 

A.  Leaflets  arranged  along  two  sides  of  a  main  leafstalk,  with  a  leaflet  at  the 

end. 

(1)  Leaflets  generally  3    (sometimes  5),  toothed  only  near  the  ends. 

Fruit,  a  cluster  of  dry,  winged  seeds,  arranged  in  pairs  like  those 
of  maple (Acer)  Boxelder.4 

(2)  Leaflets  generally  more  than  3   (3  to  11),  and  either  not  toothed 

or  with  small  teeth.  Fruit,  a  cluster  of  a  single-winged,  dry, 
oar-shaped  "seeds" (Fraxinus)  Ash. 

B.  Leaflets  (5  to  9)  clustered  at  end  of  a  main  leaf-stem.    Fruit,  a  shiny,  brown 

nut   in    a    thick,    warty   or    prickly   husk,    which    separates   into    several 
parts (^Esculus)  Buckeye. 

ONE  HUNDRED  IMPORTANT  FOREST  TREES.3 


Name. 

Distribution. 

Remarks. 

1.  White  pine  (Pinus  strobus).. 

2.  Jack  pine  (Pinus  divaricata)  6 
(Pinus  bariksiana). 
3.  Red  or  Norway  pine  (Pinus 
resino'sa). 
4.  Pitch  pine  (Pinus  rigida)  

5.  Loblolly  pine  (Pinus  tseda).. 

6.  Shortleaf  pine  (Pinus  ecM- 
nata). 

Northeastern  and  Lake  States 
and  Appalachian  Mountains 
Northern  tree,  best  growth 
north  of  Lake  Superior. 
Northern  tree,  associated  with 
white  pine. 
Northeastern  and  middle  At- 
lantic States. 
Southeastern   States   Coastal 
plain,  Delaware  to  Texas. 
Middle  Atlantic  and  Southern 
States,  with  hardwood  trees. 
Piedmont     uplands,     New 
Jersey  to  Texas. 

Fine  timber  tree;  leaves  in  clusters  of  5, 
3  to  5  inches  long. 
Common  on  sandy  soil:  leaves  in  clus- 
ters of  2,  i|  to  li  inches  long. 
Leaves  in  clusters  of  2,  5  to  6  inches 
long. 
Leaves  in  clusters  of  3,  3  to  5  inches 
long. 
Leaves  in  clusters  of  3,  6  to  9  inches 
long.    Cone,  2  to  3  inches  in  diameter. 
Leaves  in  clusters  of  2  and  sometimes  3, 
3  to  5  inches  long.    Cone  small,  1  to 
2  inches  in  diameter. 

*  Boxelder,  a  true  maple,  differs  from  the  others  in  having  compound  leaves. 

5  Eastern  half  of  United  States.  Most  of  these  are  important  as  commercial  timber 
trees  ;  a  few,  however,  are  small  sized  and  included  because  of  their  botanical  importance 
and  wide  occurrence  in  mixture  with  timber  trees,  particularly  in  second-growth  forests. 

0  Some  species  are  known  by  more  than  one  scientific  name  because  of  lack  of  agree- 
ment among  botanists.  The  first  name  given  is  to  be  preferred. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON   HOME   WOODLANDS.  43 

ONE  HUNDRED  IMPORTANT  FOREST  TREES— Continued. 


Name. 


Distribution. 


Remarks. 


7.  Spruce  pine  (Pinus glabra).. 

8.  Scrub    pine,     Jersey     pine 

(Pinus  virginiana). 

9.  Pond  pine  (Pinus  scrotina). 


10.  Slash    pine    (Cuban    pine) 
(Pinus  caribsea). 


11    Longleaf    pine    (Pinus 
pilustris). 

12.  Tamarack  or  Larch  (Larix 

laricina,  Larix  americana). 

13.  White  spruce  (Picea  cana- 

densis). 

14.  Black    spruce   (Picea 

mariana). 

15.  Red  spruce  (Picea  rubra)... 

16.  Hemlock  ( Fsuga  canadensis) 


17.  Bald  cypress  (Southern  cy- 

press) ( Taxodium  disti- 
chum). 

18.  Balsam  fir  (Abies  balsamca) 

19.  Fraser  fir  (Abies  balsamea). 

20.  Arborvitae    ( Thuja    occiden- 

talis). 

21.  White  cedar  ( Chamsecyparis 

thyoidcs). 

22.  Red  cedar  or  juniper  (Juni- 

pcrusvirgimana). 

23.  Sweet  gum  (Red  gum)  (Liq- 

uidambar  styraciflua) . 

24.  Sycamore    or    Buttonwood 

(Platanus  occidcntalis) . 


25.  White  oak  (Quercus  alba}. . . 

26.  Bur    oak    (Quercus    macro- 

carpa). 

27.  Overcup  oak  (Quercus  lyrati) 

28.  Post  oak  (Box  oa£)  (Quercus 

minor}. 

29.  Chestnut      oak       (Quercus 

prinus). 

30.  Red  oak  (Quercus  rubra) 


31.  Black  oak  (Quercus  velutina) . 


32.  Pin  oak  (Quercus  palustris) . 

33.  Southern   Red   or   Spanish 

Oak     (Quercus      digitata, 
Quercus  falcata) . 


34.  Water  oak  (Quercus  nigra).. 


35.  Willow  oak  (Quercus  phcllos). 


36.  XAve   oak    (Quercus   virgin- 
\ana. 


Southeastern  States  along  coast 
Middle  Atlantic  States 

Southeastern  States  in  Coastal 
Plain.  Scattering. 

Southeastern  States  in  poorly 
drained  soils;  uplands  iia 
Georgia,  associated  with 
longleaf  pine. 

South     Atlantic    and    Gulf 
States. 

Northeastern  States,  best 
growth  in  Canada. 

Northeastern   States  and  in 

northern  Rocky  Mountains. 

Northeastern  States 


Northeastern  States  and  Appa- 
lachian Mountains. 
Northern  and  Eastern  States. 


South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
States  in  swamps. 

Northeastern  States  to  south- 
west Virginia. 

High  southern  Appalachian 
Mountains. 

Northeastern  States 

Swamps  of  eastern  and  Gulf 

Coast. 
Eastern  United  States 


Southeastern  States . . . 
Eastern  United  States. 


.do. 


Northeastern  United  States, 
Wyoming. 

Southeastern  United  States . . 
Eastern  United  States. . . . 


Northeastern  States  and  Ap- 
palachian Mountains.  Com- 
mon on  ridges. 

Eastern  United  States.... 


.do. 


.do. 


Central     and      Southeastern 
States. 


Southeastern  United  States . . 


Eastern  United  States. 


Sou  them  States. 


Leaves  in  clusters  of  2,  1J  to  3  inches 

long. 
Leaves  in  clusters  of  2,  li  to  3  inches 

long. 
Leaves  6  to  8  inches  long,  tree  similar 

to  pitch  pine,  but  cones  remain  closed 

for  several  years.    Cone  rounded. 
Leaves  in  clusters  of  2,  sometimes  3, 

8    to    12    inches    long.     Important 

turpentine  tree. 

Leaves  in  clusters  of  3,  8  to  18  inches 

long.    Important  turpentine  tree. 
Leaves  needle-shape,   f-  to   1}  inches 

long,   in  dense   brush-like  clusters, 

falling  off  in  winter. 
Leaves  i  to  f  inch  long,  arranged  singly 

around  the  smooth  twigs. 
Similar  to  white  spruce,  but  twigs  are 

minutely  hairy. 
Similar  to  black  spruce,  but  cones 

remain  attached  to  twigs  when  ripe. 
Leaves  £  to  f  inch  long,  attached  by 

tiny  leaf-stalks;  cones  £  to  f  inch 

long. 
Leaves  *  to  f  inch  long,  falling  off  in 

winter;  cones  bell-like. 

Leaves  t  to  H  inches  long;  cones  falling 

to  pieces  when  ripe. 
Similar  to  balsam  fir,  except  cones 

which  are  "scale-covered." 
Leaves  scale-like;  cones  £  to  \  inch  long, 

bent  backward  on  twigs. 
Cones    ball-like,     leaves    resembling 

arborvitse. 
Leaves  scale-like,  those  on  young  shoots 

and    seedlings    awl-shaped;     cones 

changed  into  a  soft  berry. 
Leaves  star-shape,  fruit  a  bur-like  ball 

suspended  by  a  long  stalk. 
Leaves  broad  and  coarsely  toothed; 

base  of  leafstalk  inclosing  winter  bud 

in  peculiar  manner-,  fruit  a  hard  sur- 
faced, long-stalked  ball. 
Leaves  deeply  lobed',  not  bristle-tipped ; 

acorns  ripening  in  one  season. 
A  white  oak  with  fringe-edged  acorn 

and  leaves  more  deeply  lobed  toward 

their  base. 
A  white  oak  with  acorns  completely  or 

almost  covered  by  the  acorn  cup. 
A  white  oak  with  leaves  cut  deeply 

above  and  below  the  middle  lobes, 

forming  the  suggestion  of  a  cross. 
A  white  oak  with  leaves  resembling 

those  of  the  chestnut. 

Leaves  deeply  cut,  with  bristle-tipped 
points;  acorns  ripening  in  2  seasons, 
with  acorn  cups  very  shallow. 

A  red  oak  with  thicker  leaves  which  are 
minutely  woolly  beneath;  acorns 
with  cups  as  deep  or  deeper  than 
wide. 

A  red  oak  with  smaller  leaves  and 
smaller  and  shallower  cupped  acorns. 

A  red  oak  with  leaves  very  deeply  cut, 
the  upper  central  portion  beins  very 
narrow  and  sometimes  slightly 
curved.  Abundant. 

Leaves  not  toothed,  with  large  terminal 
lobe,  sometimes  3-lobed.  Acorns 
with  shallow  cup.  Much  planted  as 
street  tree  throughout  South. 

A  red  oak  with  leaves  not  toothed  nor 
lobed;  but  resembling  a  smooth- 
edged  willow  or  peach  leaf.  Much 
planted  as  street  shade  tree  in  South- 
ern States. 

An  evergreen  oak  with  leaves  not 
toothed  nor  notched;  acorns  with 
long  stalks. 


44         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
ONE  HUNDRED  IMPORTANT  FOREST  TREES— Continued. 


Name. 


Distribution. 


Remarks. 


37.  Basswqod  or  Linden  ( Tilia 
americana). 


38.  White  basswood  (  Tilia  hete- 

rophylla). 

39.  Hackberry(Sugarberry)(CeZ- 

tis  occidentalis). 

40.  White  elm  (  TTlmus  american) . 


41.  Slippery  elm  (  Ulmus  fulva , 

ulmus  pubsecens). 

42.  Cork  elm  (  Ulmus  racemosa) . . 


Eastern  United  States. 


Middle  and  South  Atlantic 
States. 

Eastern  United  States  and 
west  to  New  Mexico  and 
Oregon. 

Eastern  United  States 


.do. 

.do. 


43.  Holly  (Ilexopaca). 


.do. 


44.  Beech    (Fagus   americana}, 
Fagus  atropunicea) . 


45.  Chestnut  ( Castanea  dcntata). 


46.  Chinquapin    (Castanea   pu- 
mila. 


47.  Black  willow  (Salix  nigra) . . . 


48.  Balm  of  Gilead  (Balsam  pop- 
lar) (Populus  balsamijera). 

49.,Cottonwood  (Carolina  pop- 
lar) (Populus  deltoides). 

50.  Swamp  cottonwood  (Popu- 

lus heterophylla). 

51.  Aspen  (" popple ")  (Populus 

tremuloides). 

52.  Big-toothed  aspen  (Populus 

grandidentata). 

53.  Paper  birch  (Betula  papyri- 

Jera}. 


54.  Sweet  birch  (Betula  lento). . . . 

55.  Yellow  birch  (Betula  luted).. 

56.  Red  mulberry  ( Morus  rubra) 


57.  Wild  plum  (Prunus  ameri- 
cana). 


58.  Wild   red   cherry    (Prunus 

pennsylvanica). 

59.  Choke  cherry  (Prunus  vir- 

giniana). 

'60.  Wild  black  cherry  (Prunus 
serotina). 

61.  Yellow  or  tulip  poplar  (Liri- 

odendron  tulipifera). 

62.  Sassafras    (Sassafras    sassa- 

tras). 


.do. 


Northeastern  and  middle  At- 
lantic States. 


Middle  and  Southern  States. . . 


Eastern  United  States 


Northern  United  States 

Eastern  United  States. . . 


South     Atlantic     and     Gulf 

States. 
Northern  and  Western  United 

States. 
Northeastern  United  States. . . 

Northern  United  States 


Northeastern  United  States. . 


Eastern  United  States.. 
...do... 


.do. 


.do. 
.do. 


.do. 


.do. 
.do. 


Leaves  broadly  heart-shaped  with 
finely  toothed  edge;  fruit  a  cluster  of 
little  woody  balls  suspended  from  the 
middle  of  a  long  narrow  leaf. 

Similar  to  basswpod  excepting  that  the 
leaves  are  whitish  or  minutely  woolly 
beneath . 

Leaves  finely  toothed;  long  pointed; 
fruit  a  long  stalked,  single-seeded 
berry  with  very  thin  flesh. 

Leaves  sharply  toothed;  fruit  flat, 
papery,  about  \  inch  long,  fringed 
around  with  tiny  hairs. 

Similar  to  white  elm,  but  inner  bark  is 
slippery  and  the  flat  fruits  have  a 
smooth  edge. 

Differing  from  other  elms  in  having 
fruit  minutely  hairy  all  over,  not 
merely  around  edges.  Twigs  with 
corky  ridges. 

Evergreen  tree  with  leaves  with  large 
spiny  teeth,  and  fruit  a  bright  red 
berry  remaining  attached  through 
the  winter.  Small  tree. 

Leaves  with  saw- tooth  edge;  fruit  a 
light  brown  nut,  ripening  and  falling 
from  spine  covered  hull  in  late  sum- 
mer. 

Leaves  with  sharp,  forward  pointing 
teeth;  fruit,  a  cluster  of  nuts  sur- 
rounded with  a  very  spiny  hull.  A 
plant  disease  is  rapidly  killing  chest- 
nut timber. 

Leaves  smaller  than  chestnut  and  finely 
woolly  beneath;  but  one  nut  in  the 
spiny'  husk.  Mostly  known  as  a 
shrub  but  reaches  tree  size. 

Leaves  slender,  long  pointed,  and  finely 
toothed.  The  largest  of  our  willows, 
difficult  to  distinguish  from  dozens 
of  other  kinds  of  willow. 

Leaves  very  broad  at  base,  toothed, 
with  round  leafstalk. 

Leaves  resembling  Balm  of  Gilead,  but 
with  flattened  leafstalk. 

Leaves  with  round  leafstalk  minutely 
woolly  on  underside  when  young. 

Leaves  broad,  finely  toothed, 'leafstalks 
flat,  longer  than  blades. 

Leaves  broad,  coarsely  toothed,  with 
flattened  leafstalks. 

Leaves  broad  at  base,  finely  toothed, 
fruit  a  papery  cone  which  falls  apart 
when  ripe,  bark  peeling  off  in  thin 
sheets. 

Bark  dark  brown,  hard  and  close,  not 
peeling  off  in  sheets,  tiny  scales  of 
cones  smooth,  not  minutely  hairy 
along  edges  as  in  yellow  birch. 

Bark  yellow  gray,  tiny  scales  of  the 
cones  minutely  hairy  along  edges. 

Leaves  heart-shaped,  sharply  toothed. 
Fruit  red  or  black.  The  white  mul- 
berry comes  from  Asia. 

Leaves  pointed,  finely  toothed,  fruit 
red  or  yellow  with  short  stalks. 
Branches  somewhat  spiny.  Calyx- 
lobes  of  flowers  with  smooth  edge. 
Small  tree  or  shrub. 

Fruit  bright  red  when  ripe,  long  stalked 

in  clusters  of  3  to  5. 

Fruit  in  a  long  cluster,  ripe  berries 
mostly  at  base,  no  remains  of  flower 
persisting. 

Fruit  resembles  choke  cherry,  but  with 
remains  of  flower  attached  to  base  of 
the  cherries. 

Leaves  large,  blunt  or  with  deep  notch 
at  end;  flowers  large;  yellow,  fruit  a 
woody  cone. 

Leaves  oval,  with  one  lobe  like  a  "mit- 
ten," or  with  a  lobe  on  each  side. 
Twigs  fragrant. 


FORESTRY  LESSONS   ON   HOME  WOODLANDS.  45 

ONE  HUNDRED  IMPORTANT  FOREST  TREES— Continued. 


Name. 


63.  Black     glim     (Pepperidge) 

(Nyssasylvattta). 

64.  Water  gum  (  Nyssa  biflora).. 

65.  Tupelo  gum   (Nyssa  aqua- 

tica).  Known  also  as  cot- 
ton gum.  Associated  with 
cypress. 

66.  Gopher  plum  (Nyssa  ogcchc) 


67.  Sweet  magnolia   (Magnolia 

virginiana,  Magnolia 
glauca).  Known  also  as 
Sweet  Bay. 

68.  Cucumber    tree    (Magnolia 

acuminata). 

69.  Umbrella    tree     (Magnolia 

Jraseri). 

70.  Large  -  leaf  magnolia  (Mag- 

nolia macrophylla). 


71.  Persimmon   (Diospyros   vir- 

giniana). 

72.  Redbud  (Judas  tree)  ( Cercis 

canadensis). 


73.  Osage  orange  (Bois  d'arc) 

( Toxylon  pomifcrum). 

74.  Sugar  maple  (A  cer  saccharum) 


75.  Silver  maple  (Acer  saccha- 

rinum). 

76.  Red  maple  (Acer  rubrum) . . . 


77.  Box  elder  or  ash-leaved  ma- 

ple (Acer  negundo). 

78.  Hardy  catalpa  (Indiancigar) 

( Catalpa  speciosa). 


79.  Flowering  dogwood  ( Cornus 
florida). 


80.  Blue  dogwood  ( Cornus  alter- 
nifolia). 


81.  Honey  locust  (Gleditsia  tri- 
acanthos). 


82.  Black  locust  (Yellow  locust) 
(Robinia  pseudacacia). 


83.  Kentucky  coffee  tree  (Gym- 
noclades  dioicus). 


84.  Pecan  ( Hicoria  pecan) . 


85.  Bitternut  hickory  (Hicoria 
minima). 


Distribution. 


Eastern  United  States. 


Southern  States. 


Swamps      of      Southeastern 
Coastal  States. 


Swamps,   South  Carolina  to 
Florida. 

Coastal  swamps,  Eastern  and 
Gulf  States. 


Eastern  United  States. 
Southeastern  States... 


.do. 


Eastern  United  States. 
...do... 


Native  to  Arkansas,  eastern 
Oklahoma  and  Texas,  but 
widely  planted  throughout 
eastern  United  States. 

Eastern  United  States 


Throughout  United  States 

South  Central  States,  widely 
cultivated  elsewhere. 


Eastern  United  States. 


Northeastern  States  and  Ap- 
palachian Mountains. 


Central  States  and  Minnesota 
to  Texas.  Widely  culti- 
vated else  where. 


Appalachian  region,  widely 
cultivated  and  naturalized 
all  over  United  States. 


Ohio  and  Mississippi  valley. . . 


Mississippi  Valley 

Eastern  United  States. 


Remarks. 


Leaves  oval  with  smooth  edge.  Fruit, 
an  elongated  berry  with  seed  but  little 
flattened  and  stone  scarcely  ridged. 

Resembling  black  gum,  but  fruit 
which  also  grows  in  pairs,  has  a  flat- 
tened and  ridged  stone. 

Fruits  produced  singly,  with  a  stalk 
longer  than  the  fruit;  stone  of  fruit 
sharp-edged  or  winged. 

Resembling  Tupelo  gum,  but  fruits 
with  stalks  shorter  than  the  fruit 
itself. 

Flowers  white.  Leaves  white,  silky 
beneath.  < 


Flowers  greenish-yellow.  Fruit  slen- 
der. 

Flowers  white,  leaves  deeply  lobed  at 
base,  forming  "ears,"  green  on  under 
side. 

Flowers  white,  leaves  very  large,  with 
"ears"  at  base,  and  white  beneath. 
Largest  leaved  tree  in  North  America 
(20  to  30  inches  long). 

Leaves  oval,  smooth,  with  smooth  mar- 
gin, fruit  orange  colored,  1  to  li 
inches  in  diameter,  edible  in  late  fall". 

Leaves  heart-shaped,  smooth  margin; 
fruit  a  pea-like  pod  in  clusters  of  4  to 
8;  flowers  resembling  a  small  rose- 
colored  sweet  pea. 

Leaves  with  smooth  edges.  Fruit  a 
heavy  ball  4  to  5  inches  in  diameter. 


Leaves  3  to  5  lobed  with  large  rounded 
teeth;  fruit  a  pair  of  keys  ripening  in 
autumn. 

Leaves  deeply  5-lobed,  with  sharp  ir- 
regular teeth;  fruit  ripening  in  spring 
before  appearance  of  leaves. 

Leaves  3  to  5  lobed,  finely  toothed; 
fruit  ripening  in  spring  or  early  sum- 
mer. 

Leaves  compound,  the  leaflets  toothed; 
fruit  ripening  in  early  summer. 

Leaves  large,  heart-shaped;  fruit  a  long 
'  'pod ' '  filled  with  flat  seeds  which  are 
tufted  at  each  end.  A  better  shaped 
tree  than  common  catalpa  ( Catalpa 
catalpa). 

Leaves  mostly  clustered  at  ends  of 
branches,  with  slightly  wavy  mar- 
gins; flowers  white  with  four  large 
bracts  resembling  petals.  Leaves  op- 
posite. 

Leaves  resembling  those  of  flowering 
dogwood,  but  alternate  in  arrange- 
ment; flowers  without  the  four  large 
petal-like  bracts. 

Leaves  doubly-compound,  the  leaflets 
with  slightly  wavy  margins;  fruit  a 
pod  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  twisted 
when  dry.  Trees  with  large  branch- 
ing thorns. 

Leaves  compound,  leaflets  with  smooth 
margins;  fruit  a  pod  3  to  4  inches 
long.  Trees  with  pairs  of  short 
thorns  at  the  base  of  leaves  and  twigs. 
Wood  heavy  and  durable  in  the 
ground. 

Leaves  doubly  compound,  the  leaflets 
with  entire  margins;  fruit  a  large 
wide  pod,  6  to  10  inches  long,  1£  to  2 
inches  wide.  Trees  without  thorns. 

Bud  scales  few,  shell  of  nut  thin  and 
brittle,  with  large  cavities;  nuts  elon- 
gated with  sweet  kernel. 

Nut  broader  than  long,  with  bitter 
kernel. 


46         DEPARTMENT  BULLETIN  863,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
ONE  HUNDRED  IMPORTANT  FOREST  TREES— Continued. 


Name. 


Distribution. 


Remarks. 


86.  Water    hickory    (Hicoria 

aquatica). 
87.  Shagbark  hickory  (Hicoria 

ovata) . 


88.  Shellbark  hickory  (Hicoria 
laciniosa). 


89.  Mockernut  hickory  (Hicoria 

alba). 

90.  Pignut    hickory     (Hicoria 


glabra). 
.  Bla 


91.  Black     walnut     (Juglans 

nigra). 

92.  Butternut  or  white  wahiut 

(Juglans  cincrea). 


93.  White  ash  ( Fraxinus  ameri- 
cana) . 


94.  Red  ash  ( Fraxinus  pennsyl- 
vanica). 


95.  Green  ash  (Fraxinus  lance- 

olata). 

96.  Pumpkin    ash    (Fraxinus 

profunda) . 

97.  Black  ash  ( Fraxinus  nigra) . . 


98.  Water  ash  (Fraxinus  caro- 

liniana). 

99.  Ohio    Buckeye     (^Esculus 

glabra). 

100.  Yellow  Buckeye  (&sculus 
octandra). 


Gulf  States  and  lower  Missis- 
sippi Valley. 
Eastern  United  States 


.do. 


.do. 


Southern  States .. 

Eastern  United  States.. 

...do... 


.do. 


.do. 


do 

Southern  States. 


Northern  and  Lake  States 

Southeastern  States 

Ohio  and  Mississippi  Valleys . 
...do... 


Nut  broad,  with  bitter  kernel. 

4* 

Buds  with  many  scales  (all  of  the  pre- 
ceding hickories  have  buds  with  few 
scales),  nuts  not  flanged  at  .joints, 
shell  thick  and  bony.  Bark  loosen- 
ing from  trees. 

Difficult  to  distinguish  from  shagbark 
hickory.  Twigs  are  pale  orange, 
while  in  the  preceding  they  are  light 
red-brown. 

Bud  scales  many,  bark  closely  furrowed 
not  separating  from  the  trunk.  Nut 
oblong. 

Like  preceding  in  many  respects" 
Nuts  not  elongated. 

Leaves  compound,  with  toothed  edges 
fruit  growing  singly  or  in  pairs 
rounded;  bark  brown. 

Leaves  compound,  with  toothed  edges; 
fruit  in  hanging  clusters  of  3  to  5, 
pointed  and  elongated.  Velvety 
cushion  just  above  leaf-scar;  bark 
gray. 

All  species  of  ash  are  difficiilt  to  iden- 
tify, and  mostly  require  expert 
knowledge  of  the  fruit  or  "keys." 
White  ash  has  a  key  or  fruit  with  a 
plump  well  rounded  body  and  a  wing 
extending  almost  entirely  from  the 
end. 

Differs  from  white  ash  in  having  young 
twigs  velvety  and  wing  of  seed  ex- 
tending down  along  sides  of  seed- 
body. 

Like  the  preceding,  except  twigs  are 
smooth. 

Resembling  red  ash,  but  fruits  are  very 
much  larger,  sometimes  twice  the 
size. 

Fruits  with  a  flat  wide  wing,  which  ex- 
tends conspicuously  down  the  sides 
oftheseedb9dy. 

Fruits  very  wide  and  flat,  frequently 
3-winged. 

Leaves  palmately  compound;  fruit  in  a 
knobby  husk. 

Resembling  preceding,  but  fruit  in  a 
smooth  husk. 


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